CES Technical Report 131,   August 2013

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Section 1

Section 2

Section 3

Section 4

Section 5

Section 6

Section 7

Section 8

Section 9

Section 10

Flora and faunal distribution in three selected micro watersheds of Western Himalaya

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SUMMARY

Ecological status of a particular region is determined by assessing its biodiversity, prevailing conditions of the environment and their interactions. Such an assessment is carried out through the estimation of species composition and their relative abundance with reference to space and time in a region. Prioritising the region, based on these, helps to evaluate and emphasise the protection needs of a habitat, considering its local and global distribution, habitat preference and threats to species and habitats. In this regard, field sampling of flora through 34 belt transects of 1000 sq.m  in three micro watersheds  (Mandhala, Moolbari and Megad, Himachal Pradesh) of Western Himalaya, yielded a total of 2276 individuals from 75 woody species  belonging to 38 families. Among these families, Fabaceae was species rich (7 species) followed by Rosaceae (5), Pinaceae (5) and Moraceae (5). Quercus leucotriphora had highest individuals (811) followed by Q. glauca (394), Acacia catechu (157), Myrica esculenta (73), Pinus roxbhurghii (72),  Abies pindrow (70) and Flacourtia indica (68). Among the three micro watersheds, Mandhala was species rich with 43 species followed by Moolbari (39) and MeGad (9). In Mandala most of the species are thorny shrubs and rarely attain tree forms due to severe anthropogenic disturbances, which also yielded very low basal area. Moolbari had the highest basal area, which had dominant species Quercus leucotricophora and Q. glauca. MeGad, a high altitude area was mostly dominated by Abies pindrow, Picea smithiana, and Pinus wallichiana.

Faunal investigations enumerated 115 butterfly species, 14 amphibian and 136 bird species. Butterflies in the region were oriental and palaearctic in origin representing nine families. Nympahlidae is dominant (32 sp.) followed by Pieridae (19 sp.), Lycaenidae (16 sp.), Satyridae and Papilionidae (12 sp. each) and Hesperridae (10 sp.). Similarly, we observed 14 species amphibians belonging to 5 families. Paa minica is vulnerable and Amolops chakrataensis is data deficient according to IUCN status and these two are endemics of Himalayan foot hills. Among the three watersheds, Mandhala, lying in Shivaliks has higher diversity followed by Moolbari. We did not encounter any amphibians in MeGad microwatershed during Aug-Sept 07. In total 136 bird species were recorded from three watersheds, the maximum number of bird species occurred in Mandhala region (104) followed by Moolbari (57) and Me Gad (35). Eight species were found in all three watersheds, ranging from an altitude of 400 m to 4000 m.

INTRODUCTION

Three watersheds , viz., Mandhala, Moolbari and Me Gad representing lower, middle and upper Himalayas respectively in the state of Himachal Pradesh were chosen by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India for implementing a coordinated, multi disciplinary and multi institutional program “Bio-geo database and ecological modeling for western Himalayas”..

The Himalayas are rich in natural resources; however over the years, Himalayan environment is increasingly being threatened due to various unplanned human activities with excessive exploitation of natural resources. It is imperative to develop strategies for sustainable management to commensurate with the increasing human pressure on the natural resources.

Himachal Pradesh is an important part of Western Himalaya covering about 11% of total Himalayan land mass. Mountain ranges in the state include Shivaliks and Trans–Himalayas with altitudes ranging from about 350–7000 m above mean sea level. Winter (December–February), pre-monsoon (March–June), monsoon (July–September) and post-monsoon (October–Novermber) are major seasons in the region. Precipitation varies from snowfall to rainfall that ranges from 1000-2500 mm. Temperature varies from sub-zero ranges of -30° to -40°C (in winter) at higher altitudes, whereas in the plains it ranges between 8° to 40°C. Many rivers like Beas, Sutlej, Chenab, Ravi and Yamuna originate from this region.

The climate is distinguished in three axes: (i) a vertical axis determined by the effect of altitude on temperature; (ii) a transverse axis determined by topography along which rain shadow effects cause decreasing precipitation and increasingly extreme (continental) temperature fluctuations from SW to NE across the main ranges; (iii) a longitudinal axis determined by a geographical trend of decreasing monsoon precipitation (June September) and increasing winter snowfall (December-April) from SW to NW along all the ranges. The third axis is important in determining major ecological trends over the entire length of the Himalayan chain, but it is less important than the other two axes in determining the ecology of localities within the Western  Himalayas. (Gaston et al.,1983)

The enormous variations in the altitude, latitude and longitude of the Himalayas have added to the multiplicity of habitats and provide diverse microclimates and ecological niches for all the living beings. The Western Himalayan region which includes Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and hilly regions of Uttar Pradesh receives very less rain compared to its eastern counterpart, the Eastern Himalayas. As a result the Western Himalayan flora in due course of time has evolved and established itself as drought resistant and cold loving while the Eastern Himalayan flora has developed into moist evergreen type. Also, the Western Himalayan flora is species deficient whereas, the eastern Himalayan flora is species rich. The vegetation of Himachal Pradesh can be broadly classified into

1. Tropical-below 1000 m
2. Sub-tropical- between 1800-2000 m
3. Temperate- between 1800- 3500 m
4. Subalpine- between 3500-4000 m
5. Alpine- above 4000 m

However, these may overlap depending upon the location, topography and climatic conditions.

(i) Tropical vegetation

1. Moist mixed deciduous Sal forests:  These forests occur in Shivalik ranges and slopes of lesser Himalayas up to an altitude of about 1000 m.
2. Mixed deciduous forests: These occur on exposed slopes up to an altitude of 1500 m.

(ii) Subtropical vegetation

1. Subtropical Pine forest: Pinus roxbhurgii predominate such forests. In moist conditions broad-leaved elements such as evergreen oaks occur in association with other broad leaved species.
2. Subtropical dry evergreen forest: These are scrub forests of small leaved evergreen trees dominated by shrubby elements and several thorny species which are more prominent on hot dry exposed slopes.

(iii) Temperate vegetation

1. Himalayan moist temperate forest: These are predominantly coniferous forests.
2. Himalayan dry temperate forest: These types of forests are found in the inner Himalayan ranges with very less rainfall and precipitation is mainly in the form snowfall during winter months. Generally, conifers predominate in such forests.

(iv) Subalpine vegetation
The subalpine vegetation appears above the timber line or tree limit. The vegetation is in the form of stunted, scattered bushes.

(v) Alpine vegetation
Alpine vegetation can be divided into three types based on the species composition and climatic conditions, etc. as:

1. Moist alpine scrubs: Such scrubs are commonly found in rocky places, ridges and stony slopes.
2. Alpine meadows: Alpine meadows present some of the spectacular and colourful view of the Himalayan flora in the flowering season. Only some specialised types of herbaceous elements are seen as the climatic conditions are extremely severe and hostile at an altitude of 4000 m or above.
3. Alpine or stony desert: Beyond alpine vegetation, which begins above timber line or tree line and constitutes up to 4500 m or even up to 5000 m lies zone of alpine desert. The most dominant elements of this zone are lichens and mosses with some associated herbaceous elements.

Fauna
Compared to eastern Himalayan region, Western Himalaya is species poor. There is a comprehensive account on available faunal species from this region (Mehta, 2005). This includes lower organisms from protozoans to mammals. This study focuses on three faunal components namely butterflies, amphibians and birds.

Butterflies: Insects are particularly useful in the evaluation of landscapes for biological conservation (Kim 1993; Samways 1994). Among the diversity of insects, butterflies are ideal subjects for ecological study in landscapes (Thomas and Malorie 1985; Pollard and Yates 1993). In temperate regions, butterfly taxonomy and natural history are relatively well understood and most species can be reliably identified in the field. Butterflies are probably the best-known invertebrate taxa with an estimated 20,000 species worldwide and a prominent place in conservation programmes and biodiversity assessments (Stork et al., 2003). Furthermore, they are represented by a diverse yet relatively small number of species exhibiting a wide spectrum of ecological characteristics. Butterflies are particularly sensitive to environmental variation (Scoble 1992). Positive relations have been found between butterfly diversity and environmental variables such as plant diversity (Erhardt 1985; Thomas and Malorie 1985; Leps and Spitzer 1990; Spitzer et al., 1997), habitat complexity (Molina and Palma 1996), landscape structure (Wood and Samways 1992), topographic and moisture gradients (Kremen 1992), and climate (Pollard and Yates 1993; Parmesan 1996). Furthermore, inventorying and monitoring of butterflies has proven useful in the evaluation of terrestrial landscapes for biological conservation (Samways 1994). Examples include habitat assessment and classification (New 1991; Pollard and Yates 1993; New et al. 1995), as well as evaluation of the effects of land use (Erhardt 1985; Swengel 1996) and urbanisation (Kremen 1992; Blair and Launer 1997).

The Himalayan butterfly fauna is well documented since mid-nineteenth century viz., Carlo von-Hugel (1844-1848); Hardwick’s collections were described by Doubleday and Gray (1846) and Rodtenbacker (1848). Besides collections were also made by Lt. Colonel A. M. Lang from North Western Himalayas and A. G. Young from Kullu, which were included by Major G.F.L. Marshall and L. de Niceville in the The Butterflies of India, Burma and Ceylon (vols. 1 to 3: 1882-1890), and Rev. J.H. Hocking from Kangra district and were published by Moore, F. (1882). Subsequently, these were included in publications by Evans (1932), and Talbot (1939, 1947). De Rhe-Philipe (1931) was probably the first to publish a comprehensive list of 246 butterflies of Shimla hills and later Wynter-Blyth (1940-1946) listed as many as 294 species of butterflies from Shimla hills. These were also included in the book Butteflies of the Indian Region (1957). Mani (1986) described 377 species of butterflies except Hesperiidae from Himalaya. The recent work on Western Himalayan Butterflies was recorded by Arora et al. (2005), which provides a comprehensive list of 288 butterflies form Himachal Pradesh (2005).

Amphibians: Amphibians are the only vertebrate group to have dual life stages, one in water and the other on land. Coupled with this, they are ectotherms and skin breathers, which make them highly sensitive to ecological changes in the surroundings. They are the group with the highest proportion of species threatened with extinction (Beebee and Griffiths, 2005). Both for understanding the reasons of decline in their global population as well as to have a proper conservation initiative, there is a need for studies that focus on the processes that drive patterns of distribution and abundance of amphibians.

Diversity of amphibians in India is about 240 species (Global Amphibian Asssement, 2006), with Himalayan ranges and Western Ghats harbouring most of them. Despite such diversity, systematic studies on them are very few, especially in the temperate regions of Himalayas. For the entire state of Himachal Pradesh, 17 species of amphibians have been reported so far (Mehta, 2005).

Birds:  The Himalayan birds species accounts for more than 60% of birds found in India and species differ greatly in abundance, geographical range, mobility and detectability. The Eastern Himalayas is more rich and diverse in bird species, while, the western Himalayas is also known for rare and endemic birds like the pheasants, visiting cranes and breeding warblers.This constitutes a distinct assemblage sandwiched between the tropical forests of the Indian plains and the palaearctic steppes of the Tibetan plateau. The fauna of the alpine zone has much in common with that of adjacent Tibet, whilst many of the species typical of the subtropical foothills are also represented on the plains to the south. The intermediate temperate zone, a narrow ribbon of land 50-100 km wide and more than 2000 km long, contains the highest proportion of characteristic Himalayan species (Gaston et al., 1983). Although a description of the avifauna of the region is already available (Inskipp, 1989; Inskipp and Inskipp, 1998), no quantitative data has been published on bird habitat use.(Laiolo et al 2003)

Objectives

The major objectives of this study are:
1. Diversity and distribution of  flora in the three micro watersheds
2. Diversity and distribution of selected fauna, namely butterfly, amphibians and birds in the region

Materials and Methods

Study area: Details of the geography of the study area are given in Table 1. These three micro watersheds form a part of Chandrabagha, Sutlej and Yamuna river basins.

Table 1. Geographical details of studied micro watersheds.

Micro watersheds	District	Main watershed	Latitude (°N)	Longitude (°E)	Altitude (m amsl)	Area (sq.km)
Mandhala	Solan	Yamuna	30.87-30.97	76.82-76.92	400-1100	14.5
Moolbari	Shimla	Sutlej	31.07-31.17	77.05-77.15	1400-2000	10
MeGad	Lahaul and Spiti	Chandrabhaga	32.64-32.74	76.46-76.74	2900-4500	45

Mandhala: This area has mixed deciduous forests in an altitude below 1100 m. The prominent trees and shrubs found here are Flacourtia montana, Acacia catechu, Grewia optiva, Toona ciliata, Albizia procera, Haldina cordifolia, Acacia sp., Lannea coramandelica, Mitragyma parviflora, along with Nyctanthus arbor-tristis, Carissa apaca, Dodonaea viscose and Woodfordia fruticosa. Most of the forests here have been deforested and hill ranges are completely covered with Lantana camera an exotic invasiveweed. Also scattered trees of Holoptelia integrifolia, Dalbergia sisoo, Morus nigra, etc. occur along the field bunds and other open lands.

Moolbari: Vegetation in this watershed consists of mixed deciduous (till an altitude of 1500 m) and sub-tropical pine forest (beyond 1500 m). Apart from Pinus,other species are Pyrus pashia, Rubus ellipticus, Berberis sp, and in moist localities species of Quercus leucotrichophora and Q. glauca and Rhododendron arboretum. Exposed hill slopes in pine forests have Euphorbia royleana. Between 1800-2300 m, oak forests species such as Quercus leucotrichophora, Q. glauca dominate along with Rhododendron arboretum, Lyonia ovalifolia, Persia sp., Myrica esculenta, Acer oblongum, Cedrus deodar,etc.

MeGad:

This watershed lies in cold desert and comprises of temperate, sub-alpine and alpine vegetation.

• Temperate vegetation: It consists of woody trees at an altitude of 2500-3200 m such as Pinus wallichiana, Juniperus recurva, Picea smithiana, Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara . Along the streams and irrigated canals are planted trees of Salix and Poplar sp.
• Sub-alpine vegetation: It consists ofstunted, scattered bushes of Juniperus communis, Berberis sp., etc along with herbaceous species such as Ranunculus, Pedicularis, Potentilla, Polygonum, Geranium, Anemone, Corydalis, etc.
• Alpine Vegetation: Up to 4000 m only herbaceous species such as Swertia, Silene, Potentilla, Cordalis, Taraxacum, Astralagus, Rheum, Polygonum, Artimisia, Primula etc., occur. Alpine meadows provide one of the most spectacular and colourful view. Majority of the alpine meadows are perennial in nature and perenate through rhizomes, root stocks, runners, suckers, bulbs, tubers or bulbils. Common herbaceous species here are Saxifraga, Arenaria, Aster, Polygonum, Primula, Potentilla, Selinum, Taraxicum, Astralagus, Geranium, Senecio, Saussurea, Swertia, Erigeron, Corydalis, Rheum, etc. Terrestrial orchids such as Goodyera, Malaxis, etc., are also seen here.

Methods:

Vegetation Sampling: Systematic sampling was carried out in all three micro watersheds (Moolbari, Mandhala, and MeGad)  With belt transects of 250 x 4 m. In each transect, for each tree GBH in cm (Girth at Breast Height, approximately at 130 cm above ground) and height in m is noted along with its identification. Unidentified plants were labelled and pressed in herbaria for later identification.

Coordinates were marked using GPS (Global Positioning System) at every 100 metres interval and at the start and end points in each transect. Litter weight is measured in four 1 m X 1 m quadrat within each transect. Using densiometer, canopy cover is measured at start, end point and at 100 metre intervals in each transect.  Also, relative humidity and air temperature was taken at every 100 m and at the start and end of the transect.

Faunal Sampling
Butteflies: In selected localities, transect based sampling (250x4 m) as well as opportunistic sampling of butterflies was carried out. Most of the butterflies were identified in the field and others were photographed and identified later with the available keys.

Amphibian: Amphibians are highly seasonal and majority of them breed during monsoon. Hence, we searched and identified amphibians during July-August 2007 in major land-use categories like waterbodies (streams of 1° and 2°), forests, agriculture fields, and open area between 19:00-21:00 h. We have invested 2 man-hour searches on each night. Number of individuals, sampling co-ordinates and habitat characteristics were also noted.

Birds: Time constrained sampling of 1 hour in each habitat types during morning and evening was carried out. The co-ordinates were taken at the start and end point of transects using GPS and species alongwith their numbers were also recorded

Table 1: Showing the equations for calculating IVI

Index	Equation	Remarks	References
Density	Number of species A Area sampled (m2)	Compactness with which a species exists in an area.	Elzinga et al, (2001)
Relative Density	Density of species A x 100 Total density of all species
Dominance	Basal area of species A Area sampled (m2)	The occupancy of a species over an area
Relative dominance	Dominance of species A x 100 Total dominance of all species
Frequency	Number of quadrats with species A Total number of quadrats sampled	The repeated occurrence of a species	Elzinga et al, (2001)
Relative Frequency	Frequency of species A x 100 Total frequency of all species
Important Value Index	R. density + R. frequency + R. basal area
Abundance	Number of individuals of a species x 100 Number of sampling units
Numerical species Richness	S-1 log N	S= Number of species N= Number of Individuals	Magurran A.E,1988
Simpson Diversity index	D=∑ni (ni-1)      N(N-1)	Ni= Number of individuals in each species N= Total number of individuals
Simpson dominance index	D=∑(ni/N)2
Shannon Weiner’s Index	H’=-∑Piln Pi	Pi= ni/N
Pielou’s evenness measure	E=H’/log S	H’= Shannon-Weiner’s index S= Number of species

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Vegetation
Woody species in the three micro watersheds is detailed in Table 2. Transects are named with first two letters of the microwatershed (Ma stands for Mandhala, Mo-Moolbari and Me for MeGad). Transect wise analysis in each of the micro watershed is discussed below.

Mandhala: 11 transects were laid in Mandhala water shed area. Total individuals recorded in these transects were 447 with the highest number of individuals (84) recorded in Ma-6. Acacia catechu with higher number of individuals constitute a dominant species. This species was planted earlier by forest department under afforestation programme. Lower number of individuals were recorded in Ma-5 and Ma-10 with severe degradation. Species richness was more in Ma-2 with 21 species and lowest in Ma-9 with 3 species. Basal area was highest in Ma-2 and lowest in Ma-7. Table 3 details transect-wise data for all three micro watersheds. The higher species diversity and basal area in Ma-2 can be attributed to the fenced protection provided by the farmers residing in the region that has ensured the survival of saplings. Hills adjoining this transect without fencing were totally barren, filled with impenetrable thickets of Lantana shrubs.

The highest diversity was in Ma-2, which also has highest Shannon value of 2.6, Simpson diversity of 0.9 and dominance  value of 0.09. The least diversity was in Ma-8 dominated by Acacia catechu with Shannon value of 0.63 and dominance of 0.73. Acacia catechu had the highest IVI of 61.19, followed by Flacourtia indica (28.51), Mangifera indica, (26.04), Odina (19.07), and Anogeissus latifolia (15.35) as listed in Table 4. Dominating deciduous trees in the region are Acacia catechu, Flacourtia indica, Anogeissus latifolia and Odina wodiyer.

Moolbari: Total number of species (15 species) and number of individuals (188) was high in Mo-15, which is Rhododendron arboreum and Quercus mixed forest. Mo-4 was species deficient (5 species) as these forests were dominated by Quercus glauca. Mo-1 had the highest basal area contributed mainly by Quercus glauca followed by Quercus leuchotrichophora. Mo-15 showed highest Pielou species richness value of 2.67, while it was lowest in Mo-4 with 0.92. Shannon diversity was highest in Mo-15 (1.72). This is due to the presence of several evergreen species such as Persea, Euonymous, Myrica sp etc., in the valleys. The higher slopes generally has Quercus species, mixed with Rhododendron. With dominance value of 0.73, Mo-11 showed the highest species dominance and had low Simpson value (0.34). This higher dominance is mainly due to Quercus leucotrichophora, which has 92 individuals and only 16 individuals of all other species.

The higher dominance of Quercus leucotricophora is reflected in the IVI value of 109.40, which is the highest for Moolbari water shed (Table 5). This is followed by Quercus glauca with 62.18. Pinus roxburghii is found extensively covering some of the slopes and has an IVI of 16.49. Mixed with these dominant species are species of Acer oblongum with IVI of 13.39, Myrica esculenta with 13.01. Rhododendron arboreum with IVI of 9.08 mostly occurred in Mo-15, which is relatively wetter compared to other transects. Other species such as Cedrus deodara with IVI of 8.01 occured in valleys and Pyrus pashia with 6.98 is scattered throughout the watershed.

MeGad:  This micro watershed is relatively species poor. However, basal area was highest in Me-7 with 4.05 contributed by Abies pindrow and Pinus wallichiana. The lowest basal area was in Me-5 with 0.27, predominantly sub-alpine grasslands with scattered trees. The overall species diversity in MeGad was very low with Shannon diversity of 0.9 in Me-1, with only 4 species in entire transect. Me-5 is a alpine grassland and cultivated in some areas had only one species with lowest diversity.

Abies pindrow with 94.61 and Pinus wallichiana with 83.30 show a very high IVI value (Table 6). These are followed by Picea smithiana (58.58) and Salix denticulate (27.34).

Table 2. Woody species with habitats in all three micro watersheds

Sl	Species	Family	Habit
1	Abies pindrow	Pinaceae	Tree
2	Acacia catechu	Mimosaceae	Tree
3	Acacia leucophloea	Mimosaceae	Tree
4	Acacia nilotica	Mimosaceae	Tree
5	Acer oblongum	Aceraceae	Tree
6	Adina cordifolia	Rubiaceae	Tree
7	Albizzia lebbeck	Fabaceae	Tree
8	Anogeissus latifolia	Combretaceae	Tree
9	Azadirchta indica	Meliaceae	Tree
10	Bambusa sp	Poaceae	Shrub
11	Bauhinia variegata	Fabaceae	Tree
12	Berberis aristata	Berberidaceae	Tree
13	Butea monosperma	Fabaceae	Tree
14	Carissa spinarium	Apocynaceae	Shrub
15	Cassia fistula	Fabaceae	Tree
16	Cassia sp	Fabaceae	Tree
17	Cedrus deodara	Pinaceae	Tree
18	Celtis australis	Ulmaceae	Tree
19	Cornus capitata	Cornaceae	Tree
20	Cupressus torulosa	Cupressaceae	Tree
21	Dalbergia sissoo	Fabaceae	Tree
22	Diospyrus montana	Ebenaceae	Tree
23	Dodonea viscosa	Sapindaceae	Tree
24	Eucalyptus sp	Myrtaceae	Tree
25	Euonymus hamiltoniaus	Celastraceae	Tree
26	Euonymus sp	Celastraceae	Tree
27	Euonymus tingens	Celastraceae	Tree
28	Euphorbia roylena	Euphorbiaceae	Shrub
29	Ficus nemoralis	Moraceae	Tree
30	Ficus pumila	Moraceae	Tree
31	Ficus racemosa	Moraceae	Tree
32	Ficus sp	Moraceae	Tree
33	Flacourtia indica	Flacourtiaceae	Tree
34	Grewia optiva	Tiliaceae	Tree
35	Grewia sp	Tiliaceae	Tree
36	Hamiltonia suaveolens	Rubiaceae	Tree
37	Holoptilia integrifolia	Ulmaceae	Tree
38	Ipomea carnea	Convolvulaceae	Shrub
39	Jasminum multiflora	Oleaceae	Shrub
40	Juglans regia	Juglandaceae	Tree
41	Juniperus macropoda	Cupressaceae	Tree
42	Lannea coromandelica	Anacardiaceae	Tree
43	Lantana camara	Verbenaceae	Shrub
44	Leucena leucocephala	Fabaceae	Tree
45	Lyonia ovalifolia		Tree
46	Malus baccata	Rosaceae	Tree
47	Mangifera indica	Anacardiaceae	Tree
48	Mitragyna parviflora	Rubiaceae	Tree
49	Morus nigra	Moraceae	Tree
50	Murraya koengii	Rutaceae	Tree
51	Myrica esculenta	Myricaceae	Tree
52	Nyctanthus arbor-tristis	Nyctaginaceae	Tree
53	Persea sp	Lauraceae	Tree
54	Phoenix sylvestris	Arecaceae	Palm
55	Picea smithiana	Pinaceae	Tree
56	Pinus roxbhurghii	Pinaceae	Tree
57	Pinus wallichiana	Pinaceae	Tree
58	Pistachia integrima	Anacardiaceae	Tree
59	Prunus cerasoides	Rosaceae	Tree
60	Punica granatum	Rosaceae	Tree
61	Pyrus pashia	Rosaceae	Tree
62	Quercus glauca	Fagaceae	Tree
63	Quercus leucotrichophora	Fagaceae	Tree
64	Randia sp	Rubiaceae	Shrub
65	Rhamnus sp	Rhamnaceae	Shrub
66	Rhododendron arboreum	Ericaceae	Shrub
67	Rubus ellipticus	Rosaceae	Shrub
68	Salix denticulate	Salicaceae	Tree
69	Syzygium cumini	Myrtaceae	Tree
70	Toona ciliate	Meliaceae	Tree
71	ui-species
72	Vitis vinifera	Vitaceae	Climber
73	Woodfordia fruticosa	Lythraceae	Shrub
74	Zanthoxylum alatum	Rutaceae	Shrub
75	Zizypus mauritiana	Rhamnaceae	Shrub

Table 3. Micro watershed wise Vegetation analysis

Watershed	Transect	Species	Individuals	Basal area (m2)	Shannon’s	sim-div	Pielou
Mandala	Ma-1	16	66	0.597	2.113	0.79	0.762
	Ma-2	21	77	1.242	2.655	0.901	0.872
	Ma-3	16	43	0.899	2.403	0.872	0.867
	Ma-4	13	29	0.406	2.240	0.861	0.873
	Ma-5	5	9	0.538	1.465	0.741	0.910
	Ma-6	12	84	0.569	1.454	0.572	0.585
	Ma-7	5	11	0.071	1.160	0.562	0.720
	Ma-8	6	76	0.432	0.637	0.264	0.356
	Ma-9	3	27	0.553	0.727	0.412	0.662
	Ma-10	6	9	0.261	1.677	0.790	0.936
	Ma-11	8	16	0.210	1.890	0.820	0.909
Moolbari	Mo-1	10	158	3.471	1.564	0.707	0.679
	Mo-2	11	129	3.137	1.428	0.658	0.595
	Mo-3	7	89	3.059	1.095	0.593	0.563
	Mo-4	5	75	2.198	0.694	0.354	0.431
	Mo-5	9	85	2.388	1.256	0.563	0.572
	Mo-6	6	83	2.335	1.057	0.577	0.590
	Mo-7	6	101	2.407	1.107	0.552	0.618
	Mo-8	6	66	2.509	1.325	0.652	0.740
	Mo-9	11	64	1.668	1.330	0.563	0.555
	Mo-10	8	79	1.458	1.454	0.682	0.699
	Mo-11	6	108	1.131	0.626	0.268	0.349
	Mo-12	8	62	1.351	1.298	0.621	0.624
	Mo-13	12	131	3.235	1.002	0.405	0.403
	Mo-14	13	102	2.695	1.480	0.631	0.577
	Mo-15	15	188	2.893	1.727	0.759	0.638
	Mo-16	7	58	0.730	1.301	0.626	0.669
MeGad	Me-1	4	39	2.050	0.908	0.523	0.655
	Me-2	3	31	2.361	0.923	0.564	0.840
	Me-3	3	31	3.507	0.668	0.398	0.608
	Me-4	3	18	1.995	0.426	0.204	0.388
	Me-5	1	1	0.207	0	0	0
	Me-6	3	22	2.520	0.937	0.558	0.853
	Me-7	2	30	4.056	0.637	0.444	0.918
All	Mandhala	446	43	6.664	2.688	0.842	0.706
	Moolbari	1649	39	39.94	1.805	0.695	0.493
	MeGad	177	9	16.70	1.428	0.720	0.650

Discussion

Mandhala, Moolbari, and Me Gad micro watersheds had a total of 2276 individuals from 75 woody species from 34 belt transects. A total of 38 families were recorded, of which Fabaceae had the highest number of species (7), followed by Rosaceae, Pinaceae and Moraceae (5 each). The highest number of individuals per species was Quercus leucotriphora with 811 individuals followed by  Q.glauca (394), Acacia catechu (157), Myrica esculenta (73), Pinus roxbhurghii (72),  Abies pindrow (70) and Flacourtia indica (68).

Species richness was highest in Mandhala (45 species) followed by Moolbari (39) and MeGad (9). Although Mandala had the highest species diversity, it had lowest dominance. Most of the species are thorny shrubs and rarely attain tree forms due to severe anthropogenic disturbances in this watershed, hence very low basal area is observed compared to number of other species. In Moolbari, which had the highest basal area (39.94) was mainly contributed by Quercus leucotricophora and Q. glauca. In Mandhala, the negligible basal area found was due to absence of large trees as in Moolbari or MeGad, due to the earlier deforestation and extensive encroachment of forestland by obnoxious weed Lantana camara. This shrub has totally covered the lower slopes in Mandhala making it an unsuitable habitat for wildlife as well as domesticated animals. Also regeneration of forest plant species has totally ceased due to the permanent cover created by this bush.

Overall Quercus species dominated in the Moolbari watershed area, while deciduous species such as Acacia catechu, Flacourtia indica dominated in Mandala watershed. MeGad, a high altitude area was dominated by Abies pindrow, Picea smithiana, and Pinus wallichiana, which is reflected in the IVI values (Table 4, 5, and 6).

Table 4: IVI  for woody species in Mandhala watershed.

Sl	Species	IVI
1	Acacia catechu	61.19
2	Flacourtia indica	28.51
3	Mangifera indica	26.04
4	Lannea coromandelica	19.07
5	Anogeissus latifolia	15.35
6	Dalbergia sissoo	9.45
7	Mitragyna parviflora	9.39
8	Grewia optiva	8.58
9	Cassia fistula	7.99
10	Woodfordia fruticosa	7.88
11	Azadirachta indica	7.42
12	Eucalyptus	7.18
13	Butea monosperma	6.28
14	Dodonea viscosa	6.24
15	Murraya koenigii	4.96
16	Carissa spinarium	4.78
17	Syzgium cumini	4.74
18	Phoenix sylvestris	4.73
19	Adina cordifolia	4.68
20	Species 1	4.54
21	Acacia nilotica	3.84
22	Ficus racemosa	3.72
23	Pinus roxbhurghii	3.50
24	Randia sp	2.99
25	Acacia leucophloea	2.97
26	Zanthoxylum alatum	2.81
27	Holoptilia integrifolia	2.64
28	Morus nigra	2.54
29	Albizzia lebbeck	2.51
30	Bambusa sp	2.14
31	Species 4	2.09
32	Species 2	2.09
33	Leucena leucocephala	1.92
34	Diospyros montana	1.71
35	Jasminum multiflora	1.64
36	Pyrus pashia	1.44
37	Hamiltonia suveolens	1.42
38	Zizypus mauritiana	1.42
39	Punica granatum	1.41
40	Species 5	1.27
41	Nyctanthus arbor-tristis	1.18
42	Ipomea carnea	1.18
43	Lantana camara	1.16

Table 5: IVI of Woody species from Moolbari watersheds

Sl	Species	IVI
1	Quercus leucotricophora	109.40
2	Quercus glauca	62.18
3	Pinus roxburghii	16.49
4	Acer oblongum	13.39
5	Myrica esculenta	13.01
6	Rhododendron arboreum	9.08
7	Cedrus deodara	8.01
8	Pyrus pashia	6.98
9	Grewia sp	6.04
10	Pistachia integrima	5.74
11	Lyonia ovalifolia	5.32
12	Species A	4.57
13	Euonymus tingens	3.51
14	Punica granatum	3.23
15	Euphorbia roylena	2.72
16	Species 1	2.53
17	Ficus nemoralis	2.02
18	Berberis aristata	1.78
19	Euonymus hamiltoniaus	1.78
20	Bauhinia variegate	1.74
21	Prunus cerasoides	1.73
22	Celtis australis	1.69
23	Persea sp	1.65
24	Grewia optiva	1.59
25	Cupressus torulosa	1.29
26	Euonymus sp	1.17
27	Tiliaceae	1.17
28	Toona ciliata	1.12
29	Species C	0.89
30	X sp	0.87
31	Hypericum	0.86
32	Ficus pumila	0.85
33	Species D	0.83
34	B sp	0.82
35	Ficus sp	0.80
36	Cornus capitata	0.79
37	Vitis vinifera	0.79
38	Rhamnus sp	0.79
39	Rubus ellipticus	0.78

Table 6:  IVI of Woody species in MeGad watershed.

Sl	Species	IVI
1	Abies pindrow	94.61
2	Pinus wallichiana	83.30
3	Picea smithiana	58.58
4	Salix denticulate	27.34
5	Juglans regia	9.70
6	Malus baccata	7.72
7	ui-Krown	7.07
8	Cassia sp	5.85
9	Juniperus macropoda	5.83

Faunal diversity

Butterfly
The present study enumerated 115 butterfly species of oriental and palaearctic origin representing nine families. Nympahlidae is the dominant family (32 sp.) followed by Pieridae (19 sp.), Lycaenidae (16 sp.), Satyridae and Papilionidae (12 sp. each), Hesperridae (10 sp.), Danaidae (8 sp.), Erycidae (4 sp.) and Acraeidae (2 sp.).  Table 7, 8, 9 and 10 details the list of butterflies in the three micro watersheds.

• The family Papilionidae is commonly known as Swallowtail family, comprising some of the larger butterflies. In the study area, this family representing two sub-families viz., Parnasiinae (Apollos) and Papilioninae. Three species of apollos namely Parnassius hardwickii hardwickii (Common Blue Apollo) in Moolbari watershed and Parnassius delphius (Banded Apollo) and Parnassius charltonius (Regal Apollo) in the open grassy and rocky areas of Megad watershed were seen. The sub-family Papilioninae represented by Papilio protenor protenor (Spangle) and Chilasa agestor (Tawny Mime).
• The Family Pieridae commonly known as Whites or Yellows seen in MeGad watershed  are Pieris brassicae nepalensis (Large Cabbage White), Aporia nabellica (Dusky Blackvein), Pontia daplidice moorei (Bath White) and Colias sp. (Clouded yellows).
• More species of the family Satyridae and Nymphalidae were recorded during the survey. Nymphalis (Aglais) kashmirensis (Common Tortoiseshell), Nymphalis (Aglais) ladakensis (Ladakh Tortoiseshell), Vanessa indica (Red Admiral), Kaniska canace canace (Blue Admiral), Aulocera sp. (Satyrs), Callerebia sp. (Arguses) and Melitaea arceisa (Blackvein Fritillary) were recorded in Moolbari and Megad watersheds.
• Family Erycinidae is commonly known as family of Beaks, Punches and Judies, which are represented by Dodona durga (Common Punch), Lybithea sp. (Beaks) in Moolbari and Abisara echerius suffusa (Plum Judy) in Mandhala watershed.
• Lycaenidae is commnly known as family of Blues are represented by Heliophorus sena (Sorrel Sapphire), Tajuria cippus (Peacock Royal) and Chrysozephyrus sp. (Hairstreak) in Moolbari watershed and Lycaena kasyapa (Green Copper) and Polyommatus stoliczkanus janetae (Common Meadow Blue) in Megad watershed.

Table 7: Butterfly species in Moolbari Watershed (Shimla Dist.)

Sl. No.	Family	Common Name	Species
1	Papilionidae	Common Blue Apollo	Parnassius hardwickii hardwickii (Gray 1831)
2	Papilionidae	Common Peacock	Papilio polyctor polyctor (Boisduval 1836)
3	Papilionidae	Common Mormon	Papilio polytes romulus (L., 1758)
4	Papilionidae	Common Lime	Papilio demoleus (L., 1758)
5	Papilionidae	Spangle	Papilio protenor protenor (Cramer 1775)
6	Papilionidae	Common Bluebottle	Graphium serpedon (L., 1758)
7	Papilionidae	Common Mime	Chilasa clytia clytia (L., 1758)
8	Papilionidae	Tawny Mime	Chilasa agestor (Gray 1831)
9	Pieridae	Spot Puffin	Appias lalage (Doubleday 1842)
10	Pieridae	Striped Albatross	Appias libythea (Fabricius 1775)
11	Pieridae	Common Gull	Cepora nerissa phryne (Fabricius 1775)
12	Pieridae	Common Emigrant	Catopsilia pomona (Fabricius 1775)
13	Pieridae	Mottled Emigrant	Catopsilia pyranthe pyranthe (L., 1758)
14	Pieridae	Small Grass Yellow	Eurema brigitta rubella (Wallace 1867)
15	Pieridae	Spotless Grass Yellow	Eurema laeta laeta (Boisduval 1836)
16	Pieridae	Common Grass Yellow	Eurema hecabe (L., 1758)
17	Pieridae	White Orange Tip	Ixias marianne (Cramer 1779)
18	Pieridae	Yellow Orange Tip	Ixias pyrene (L., 1764)
19	Pieridae	Indian Cabbage White	Pieris canidia (Sparrman) indica (Evans 1926)
20	Danaidae	Plain Tiger	Danaus chrysippus (L., 1758)
21	Danaidae	Common Tiger	Danaus genutia (Cramer 1779)
22	Danaidae	Common Indian Crow	Euploea core core (Cramer 1780)
23	Danaidae	Striped Blue Crow	Euploea mulciber mulciber (Cramer 1777)
24	Danaidae	Chestnut Tiger	Parantica sita sita (Kollar 1844)
25	Danaidae	Blue Tiger	Tirumala limniace (Cramer 1775)
26	Danaidae	Dark Blue Tiger	Tirumala septentrionis (Butler 1874)
27	Satyridae	Lilacine Bushbrown	Mycalesis francisca sanatana (Moore 1857)
28	Satyridae	Dark-brand Bushbrown	Mycalesis mineus mineus (L., 1758)
29	Satyridae	Common Three ring	Ypthima asterope (Moore 1886)
30	Satyridae	Large Three ring	Ypthima nareda nareda (Kollar 1844)
31	Nymphalidae	Indian Tortoiseshell	Nymphalis (Aglais) kashmirensis (Kollar 1844)
32	Nymphalidae	Ladakh Tortoiseshell	Nymphalis (Aglais) ladakensis (Moore1878)
33	Nymphalidae	Indian Fritillary	Argyreus hyperbius hyperbius (L., 1765)
34	Nymphalidae	Common Castor	Ariadne merione (Cramer 1777)
35	Nymphalidae	Himalayan Sergeant	Athyma opalina (Kollar 1844)
36	Nymphalidae	Common Sergeant	Athyma perius (L., 1758)
37	Nymphalidae	Studded Sergeant	Athyma asura (Moore 1858)
38	Nymphalidae	Indian Purple Emperor	Mimathyma ambica ambica (Kollar 1844)
39	Nymphalidae	Common Map	Cyrestis thyodamas thyodamas (Boisduval 1836)
40	Nymphalidae	Common Siren	Hestina persimilis (Westwood 1850)
41	Nymphalidae	Gaudy Baron	Euthalia lubentina (Cramer 1777)
42	Nymphalidae	Great Eggfly	Hypolimnas bolina (L., 1758)
43	Nymphalidae	Danaid Eggfly	Hypolimnas misippus (Linn.)
44	Nymphalidae	Chacolate Pansy	Junonia iphita (Cramer 1779)
45	Nymphalidae	Yellow Pansy	Junonia hierta (Fabricius 1798)
46	Nymphalidae	Blue Pansy	Junonia orithya (L., 1758)
47	Nymphalidae	Lemon Pansy	Junonia lemonias persicaria (Fruhstorfer)
48	Nymphalidae	Peacock Pansy	Junonia almana (L., 1758)
49	Nymphalidae	Orange Oakleaf	Kallima inachus (Boisduval 1846)
50	Nymphalidae	Blue Admiral	Kaniska canace canace (L., 1763)
51	Nymphalidae	Common Sailer	Neptis hylas (L., 1758)
52	Nymphalidae	Common Leopard	Phalanta phalanta (Drury 1773)
53	Nymphalidae	Common Nawab	Polyura athamas athama (Drury 1773)
54	Nymphalidae	Painted Lady	Vanessa cardui (L., 1758)
55	Nymphalidae	Indian Red Admiral	Vanessa indica (Herbst 1794)
56	Acraeidae	Tawny Coster	Acraea terpsicore (L., 1758)
57	Acraeidae	Yellow Coster	Acraea issoria (Hubner 1819)
58	Erycinidae	Common Punch	Dodona durga (Kollar, 1844)
59	Erycinidae	Common Beak	Lybythea celtis lepita (Moore 1858)
60	Erycinidae	Club Beak	Lybithea myrrha (Godart 1819)
61	Lycaenidae	Common Copper	Lycaena phlaeas (L., 1761)
62	Lycaenidae	Brown Argus	Aricia agestis nazira (Moore 1865)
63	Lycaenidae	Common Pierrot	Castalius rosimon (Fabricius 1775)
64	Lycaenidae	Hairstreak	Chrysozephyrus sp.
65	Lycaenidae	Sorrel Sapphire	Heliophorus sena (Kollar 1844)
66	Lycaenidae	Pale Grass Blue	Pseudozizeeria maha (Kollar 1844)
67	Lycaenidae	Peacock Royal	Tajuria cippus (Fabricius 1798)
68	Lycaenidae	Tiny Grass Blue	Zizula hylax (Fabracius 1775)
69	Hesperiidae	Rice Swift	Borbo cinnara (Wallace 1866)
70	Hesperiidae	Tricolour Pied Flat	Coladenia indrani indrani (Moore 1865)
71	Hesperiidae	Large Branded Swift	Pelopidas sinensis (Mabille 1877)
72	Hesperiidae	Small Branded Swift	Pelopidas mathias mathais (Fabricius 1798)
73	Hesperiidae	Yellow-spot Swift	Polytremis eltola (Hewitson 1869)
74	Hesperiidae	Indian Skipper	Spialia galba (Fabricius 1793)
75	Hesperiidae	Indian Palm Bob	Suastus gremius (Fabricius 1798)
76	Hesperiidae	Dark Palm Dart	Telicota pythias (Mabille)
77	Hesperiidae	Grass Demon	Udaspes folus (Cramer 1775)

Table 8: Butterfly species in Mandhala watershed (Solan District)

Sl. No.	Family	Common Name	Species
2	Papilionidae	Common Peacock	Papilio polyctor polyctor (Boisduval 1836)
3	Papilionidae	Common Mormon	Papilio polytes romulus (L., 1758)
1	Papilionidae	Common Lime	Papilio demoleus (L., 1758)
4	Papilionidae	Tailed Jay	Graphium agamemnon (L., 1758)
5	Papilionidae	Common Jay	Graphium doson (C & R Felder 1864)
6	Pieridae	Common Gull	Cepora nerissa phryne (Fabricius 1775)
7	Pieridae	Common Emigrant	Catopsilia pomona (Fabricius 1775)
8	Pieridae	Common Jezebel	Delias eucharis (Drury 1773)
9	Pieridae	Small Grass Yellow	Eurema brigitta rubella (Wallace 1867)
10	Pieridae	Common Grass Yellow	Eurema hecabe (L., 1758)
11	Pieridae	Yellow Orange Tip	Ixias pyrene (L., 1764)
12	Pieridae	Common Wanderer	Pareronia valeria (Cramer 1776)
13	Pieridae	Indian Cabbage White	Pieris canidia (Sparrman) indica (Evans 1926)
14	Danaidae	Plain Tiger	Danaus chrysippus (L., 1758)
15	Danaidae	Common Tiger	Danaus genutia (Cramer 1779)
16	Danaidae	Common Indian Crow	Euploea core core (Cramer 1780)
17	Danaidae	Glassy Tiger	Parantica aglea (Stoll 1782)
18	Danaidae	Blue Tiger	Tirumala limniace (Cramer 1775)
19	Danaidae	Dark Blue Tiger	Tirumala septentrionis (Butler 1874)
20	Satyridae	Common Evening Brown	Melanitis leda leda (Fabricius 1775)
21	Satyridae	Common Bushbrown	Mycalesis perseus (Fabricius 1775)
22	Satyridae	Nigger	Orsotriaena medus (Fabricius 1775)
23	Satyridae	Common Three ring	Ypthima asterope (Moore 1886)
24	Satyridae	Common Five ring	Ypthima baldus baldus (Fabricius 1775)
25	Nymphalidae	Indian Fritillary	Argyreus hyperbius hyperbius (L., 1765)
26	Nymphalidae	Common Castor	Ariadne merione (Cramer 1777)
27	Nymphalidae	Common Sergeant	Athyma perius (L., 1758)
28	Nymphalidae	Common Baron	Euthalia aconthea garuda (Cramer 1777)
29	Nymphalidae	Great Eggfly	Hypolimnas bolina (L., 1758)
30	Nymphalidae	Danaid Eggfly	Hypolimnas misippus (Linn.)
31	Nymphalidae	Commander	Limenitis procris (Cramer 1777)
32	Nymphalidae	Chacolate Pansy	Junonia iphita (Cramer 1779)
33	Nymphalidae	Yellow Pansy	Junonia hierta (Fabricius 1798)
34	Nymphalidae	Blue Pansy	Junonia orithya (L., 1758)
35	Nymphalidae	Lemon Pansy	Junonia lemonias persicaria (Fruhstorfer)
36	Nymphalidae	Peacock Pansy	Junonia almana (L., 1758)
37	Nymphalidae	Grey Pansy	Junonia atlites (L., 1763)
38	Nymphalidae	Common Sailer	Neptis hylas (L., 1758)
39	Nymphalidae	Common Leopard	Phalanta phalanta (Drury 1773)
40	Nymphalidae	Painted Lady	Vanessa cardui (L., 1758)
41	Acraeidae	Tawny Coster	Acraea terpsicore (L., 1758)
42	Erycinidae	Plum Judy	Abisara echerius suffusa (Moore 1882)
43	Lycaenidae	Common Pierrot	Castalius rosimon (Fabricius 1775)
44	Lycaenidae	Gram Blue	Euchrysops cnejus (Fabricius 1798)
45	Lycaenidae	Common Cerulean	Jamides celeno (Cramer 1775)
46	Lycaenidae	Pale Grass Blue	Pseudozizeeria maha (Kollar 1844)
47	Hesperiidae	Common Small Flat	Sarangesa dasahara dasahara (Moore 1865)
48	Hesperiidae	Grass Demon	Udaspes folus (Cramer 1775)

Table 9:  Butterfly species in Megad watershed (Lahul and Spiti District)

Sl. No.	Family	Common Name	Species
1	Papilionidae	Banded Apollo	Parnassius delphius (Eversmann 1843)
2	Papilionidae	Regal Apollo	Parnassius charltonius (Gray 1852)
3	Pieridae	Indian Cabbage White	Pieris canidia (Sparrman) indica (Evans 1926)
4	Pieridae	Large Cabbage White	Pieris brassicae nepalensis (Doubleday)
5	Pieridae	Dusky Blackvein	Aporia nabellica (Boisduval 1838)
6	Pieridae	Butler,s Dwarf	Baltia butleri (Moore 1882)
7	Pieridae	Fiery Clouded Yellow	Colias eogene eogene (Felder 1865)
8	Pieridae	Dark Clouded Yellow	Colias fieldii (Menetries 1855)
9	Pieridae	Bath White	Pontia daplidice moorei (Rober)
10	Satyridae	Doherty's Satyr	Aulocera loha (Doherty 1886)
11	Satyridae	Common Satyr	Aulocera swaha swaha (Kollar 1844)
12	Satyridae	Ringed Argus	Callerebia annada (Moore 1858)
13	Satyridae	Mountain Argus	Callerebia shallada (Lang 1880)
14	Nymphalidae	Ladakh tortoiseshell	Nymphalis (Aglais) ladakensis (Moore1878)
15	Nymphalidae	Large Silverstripe or Himalayan Fritillary	Childrena childreni (Gray 1861)
16	Nymphalidae	Common Map	Cyrestis thyodamas thyodamas (Boisduval 1836)
17	Nymphalidae	Siren	Hestina sp.
18	Nymphalidae	Blackvein Fritillary	Melitaea arceisa (Bremer 1861)
19	Nymphalidae	Sailer	Neptis sp.
20	Nymphalidae	Indian Red Admiral	Vanessa indica (Herbst 1794)
21	Lycaenidae	Green Copper	Lycaena kasyapa (Moore 1865)
22	Lycaenidae	Plains Cupid	Chilades pandava pandava (Horsfield 1829)
23	Lycaenidae	Common Meadow Blue	Polyommatus stoliczkanus janetae (Evans 1927)
24	Lycaenidae	Hairstreak	Thecla sp.
25	Lycaenidae	UI*	-
26	Lycaenidae	UI*	-

Table 10:  Butterfly species from Three watersheds of Himachal Pradesh.

Sl. No.	Family	Species	Moolbari	Mandhala	Megad
1	Papilionidae	Parnassius hardwickii hardwickii	+
2		Parnassius delphius			+
3		Parnassius charltonius			+
4		Papilio polyctor polyctor	+	+
5		Papilio polytes romulus	+	+
6		Papilio demoleus	+	+
7		Papilio protenor protenor	+
8		Graphium serpedon	+
9		Graphium agamemnon		+
10		Graphium doson		+
11		Chilasa clytia clytia	+
12		Chilasa agestor	+
13	Pieridae	Appias lalage	+
14		Appias libythea	+
15		Cepora nerissa phryne	+	+
16		Catopsilia pomona	+	+
17		Catopsilia pyranthe pyranthe	+
18		Eurema brigitta rubella	+	+
19		Eurema laeta laeta	+
20		Eurema hecabe	+	+
21		Ixias marianne	+
22		Ixias pyrene	+	+
23		Pieris canidia indica	+	+	+
24		Pieris brassicae nepalensis			+
25		Delias eucharis		+
26		Pareronia valeria		+
27		Aporia nabellica			+
28		Baltia butleri			+
29		Colias eogene eogene			+
30		Colias fieldii			+
31		Pontia daplidice moorei			+
32	Danaidae	Danaus chrysippus	+	+
33		Danaus genutia	+	+
34		Euploea core core	+	+
35		Euploea mulciber mulciber	+
36		Parantica sita sita	+
37		Tirumala limniace	+	+
38		Tirumala septentrionis	+	+
39		Parantica aglea		+
40	Satyridae	Mycalesis francisca sanatana	+
41		Mycalesis mineus mineus	+
42		Mycalesis perseus		+
43		Ypthima asterope	+	+
44		Ypthima nareda nareda	+
45		Ypthima baldus baldus		+
46		Melanitis leda leda		+
47		Orsotriaena medus		+
48		Aulocera loha			+
49		Aulocera swaha swaha			+
50		Callerebia annada			+
51		Callerebia shallada			+
52	Nymphalidae	Nymphalis (Aglais) kashmirensis	+
53		Nymphalis (Aglais) ladakensis	+		+
54		Argyreus hyperbius hyperbius	+	+
55		Ariadne merione	+	+
56		Athyma opalina	+
57		Athyma perius	+	+
58		Athyma asura	+
59		Mimathyma ambica ambica	+
60		Cyrestis thyodamas thyodamas	+		+
61		Hestina persimilis	+
62		Hestina sp.			+
63		Euthalia lubentina	+
64		Euthalia aconthea garuda		+
65		Hypolimnas bolina	+	+
66		Hypolimnas misippus	+	+
67		Junonia iphita	+	+
68		Junonia hierta	+	+
69		Junonia orithya	+	+
70		Junonia lemonias persicaria	+	+
71		Junonia almana	+	+
72		Junonia atilites		+
73		Kallima inachus	+
74		Kaniska canace canace	+
75		Neptis hylas	+	+
76		Neptis sp.			+
77		Phalanta phalanta	+	+
78		Polyura athamas athama	+
79		Vanessa cardui	+	+
80		Vanessa indica	+		+
81		Limenitis procris		+
82		Childrena childreni			+
83		Melitaea arceisa			+
84	Acraeidae	Acraea terpsicore	+	+
85		Acraea issoria	+
86	Erycinidae	Dodona durga	+
87		Lybythea celtis lepita	+
88		Lybithea myrrha	+
89		Abisara echerius suffusa		+
90	Lycaenidae	Lycaena phlaeas	+
91		Lycaena kasyapa			+
92		Aricia agestis nazira	+
93		Castalius rosimon	+	+
94		Chrysozephyrus sp.	+
95		Heliophorus sena	+
96		Pseudozizeeria maha	+	+
97		Tajuria cippus	+
98		Zizula hylax	+
99		Euchrysops cnejus		+
100		Jamides celeno		+
101		Chilades pandava pandava			+
102		UI			+
103		UI			+
104		Polyommatus stoliczkanus janetae			+
105		Thecla sp.			+
106	Hesperiidae	Borbo cinnara	+
107		Coladenia indrani indrani	+
108		Pelopidas sinensis	+
109		Pelopidas mathias mathais	+
110		Polytremis eltola	+
111		Spialia galba	+
112		Suastus gremius	+
113		Telicota pythias	+
114		Sarangesa dasahara dasahara		+
115		Udaspes folus	+	+

Amphibians

Diversity: In the present study, 14 species were observed belonging to 5 families and diversity is listed in Table 10. Of the 5 families, Dicroglossidae represents 7 species, followed by Bufonidae (4) and Microhylidae, Ranidae and Rhacophoridae (1 species each). Six species are first reported from this study. 

Distribution: Table 11 details the relative abundance from three watersheds. Figure 1 depicts few amphibians recorded during this study. Mandhala watershed located in the Shivaliks is bestowed with numerous ponds, pools, streams and rivers. Most of the streams and river drain off the rainwater as soon as it rains, without any water retaining in the streams. Only ponds and pools retain water for considerable time and could be one of the reasons that majority of the amphibians observed from the regions are pool breeders dominated by Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis, Microhyla ornata, Fejervarya sp. and Polypedates maculates. Sphaerotheca breviceps, a burrowing frog was observed in the dry beds of river. Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis was found in both streams as well as in pools. Moolbari watershed belongs to the mid Himalayan ranges and many streams originate forming a network. As it has higher elevation and more streams, frogs that breed in streams predominate the region. Paa minica was observed in almost all streams with water, and having canopy cover. In agriculture fields and forested areas, Bufo himalayanus and Duttaphrynus melanostictus were recorded. Altitude and extreme temperature in MeGad watershed appears inhospitable to amphibians as it is evident from their absence while recordings during this fieldwork.

Table 11. Amphibian diversity in the three micro watersheds of Himachal Pradesh.

# Nomenclature based on Frost et al (2006)
* Observation by Zoological Survey of India.

Table 12. Relative abundance (individuals/hour of search) of amphibians recorded during the study.

Figure 1. Amphibians from Moolbari and Mandhala watersheds. A. Paa minica B. Bufo himalayanus C. Amolops chakrataensis D. Bufo sp. E. Polypedates maculates F. Sphaerotheca breviceps G. Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis H. Microhyla ornata

Avifaunal Diversity and Richness

Sampling was done in different habitat types:  forests, glacier, agriculture and forests, riverine, and agriculture. Habitatwise speces richness is given in Table 13, 14 and 15 for Moolbari, MeGad and Mandhala watersheds respectively.  In total, 136 bird species were recorded in three watersheds. Mandhala watershed records highest number of species (105) followed by Moolbari (57) and Megad (35).

Table 16 lists 8 species of birds common to all three watersheds, in an altitude of 400 to 4000 m. Table 17 provides the list of 31 species common to Mandhala and Moolbari watershed, in the altitudanal range of 400 to 2000 m. Table 18 lists nine species common to Moolbari and MeGad Watersheds. The distribution of bird species in the three watersheds is summarised in Table 19.

The habitat wise study revealed that bird species richness is more in forest patches of Mandhala and MeGad Watersheds, whereas, forest and agriculture mixed habitats in Moolbari had more species.

Table 13: Habitat wise bird species richness in Moolbari watershed

Habitat	Number of Species
Forest	25
Forest and Agriculture	33
Riverine	35
Agriculture	21

Table 14: Habitat wise bird species richness in MeGad watershed

Habitat type	Number of species
Forest	29
Glacier	11
Village and Agriculture	23

Table 15: Habitat wise bird species richness in Mandhala watershed

Habitat	Number of Species
Forest	65
Agriculture	47
Riverine	43
Agriculture and Forestry	42

Table 16: Bird species in all three watersheds

1	Parus Xanthogenys	Black lored tit
2	Phylloscopus fuscatus	Dusky warbler
3	Parus major	Great tit
4	corvus splendens	house crow
5	Passer domesticus	house sparrow
6	Corvvus macrorhynchos	Jungle crow
7	Streptopelia orientalis	Oriental turtle dove
8	columba livia	rock pigeon

Table 17: Bird species common to  Mandhala and Moolbari watersheds

Sl. No	Scientific Name	Common name
1	Terpsiphone paradisi	Asian Paradise Flycatcher
2	hypsipetes leucocephalus	Black Bulbul
3	Ictinaetus malayensis	Black Eagle
4	Parus Xanthogenys	Black Lored Tit
5	Acridotheres tristis	Common Myna
6	Phylloscopus fuscatus	Dusky Warbler
7	Streptopelia decaocto	Eurasian Collared Dove
8	Parus major	Great Tit
9	Merops orientalis	Green Bee Eater
10	Treron sphenura	Wedge Tailed Green Pigeon
11	Seicercus xanthoschistos	Grey Hooded Warbler
12	Pycnonotus leucogenys	Himalayan Bulbul
13	corvus splendens	House Crow
14	Passer domesticus	House Sparrow
15	Turdoides striatus	Jungle Babbler
16	Corvvus macrorhynchos	Jungle Crow
17	Lophura leucomelanos	Kalij Pheasant
18	Eudynamys scolopacea	Koel
19	Copsychus saularis	Magpie Robin
20	Treron bicincta	Orange Breasted Green Pigeon
21	Streptopelia orientalis	Oriental Turtle Dove
22	Nectarinia zeylonica	Purple Rumped Sunbird
23	Nectarinia asiatica	Purple Sunbird
24	Gallus gallus	Red Jungle Fowl
25	Hirundo daurica	Red Rumped Swallow
26	Pycnonotus cafer	Red Vented Bulbul
27	columba livia	Rock Pigeon
28	Streptopelia chinensis	Spotted Dove
29	Athene brama	Spotted Owllet
30	Halcyon smyrnensis	White Breasted Kingfisher
31	Zosterops palpebrosus	White Eye

Table 18: Bird Species common to Moolbari and MeGad watersheds

1	Parus Xanthogenys	Black Lored Tit
2	Phylloscopus fuscatus	Dusky Warbler
3	Parus major	Great Tit
4	corvus splendens	House Crow
5	Passer domesticus	House Sparrow
6	Corvvus macrorhynchos	Jungle Crow
7	Streptopelia orientalis	Oriental Turtle Dove
8	columba livia	Rock Pigeon
9	Myophonus caeruleus	Blue Whistling Thrush

Table 19:  Comparative distribution of bird species in the three watersheds

Scientific names	species	number	Mandhala	Moolbari	MeGad
Ocyceros biprostris	Indian Grey Hornbill	11	-	+	-
Dicrucrus leucophaeus	Ashy drango	1	-	+	-
Prinia socialis	ashy prinia	7	+	-	-
Terpsiphone paradisi	Asian paradise flycatcher	10	+	+	-
Stachyris pyrrhops	Black chinned babbler	2	+	-	-
Francolinus francolinus	Black Francolin	2	+	-	-
Certhia himalayana	bar tailed tree creeper	6	-	+	-
Hirundo rustica	Barn swallow	9	-	-	+
Ploceus philippinus	Baya weaver	4	+	-	-
hypsipetes leucocephalus	Black bulbul	31	+	+	-
Dicrucrus macrocercus	Black drongo	83	-	+	-
Ictinaetus malayensis	black eagle	7	+	+	-
Parus Xanthogenys	Black lored tit	13	+	+	+
Phoenicurus ochruros	Black redstart	2	-	+	-
Elanus caeruleus	black shouldered kite	1	+	-	-
Psittacula roseata	blossom headed parakeet	6	-	+	-
Nyctyornis athertoni	Blue bearded bee eater	2	-	+	-
Monticola cynclorhynchus	Blue capped rock thrush	2	-	+	-
Megalaima asiatica	blue throated barbet	1	-	+	-
Myophonus caeruleus	Blue whistling thrush	30	-	+	+
Sturnus pagodarum	brahminy myna	8	+	-	-
Megalaima zeylanica	brown headed barbet	1	-	+	-
bubulcus ibis	cattle egret	13	+	-	-
Motacilla citreola	citrine wagtail	5	-	-	+
Turdoides caudatus	common babbler	6	+	-	-
Falco tinnunculus	common kestrel	1	-	-	+
Alcedo atthis	Common Kingfisher
Acridotheres tristis	common myna	146	+	+	-
Megalaima haemacephala	coppersmith barbet	4	+	-	-
Centropus sinensis	Greater coucal	2	+	-	-
Melophus lathami	crested bunting	14	+	-	-
Spilornis cheela	crested serpent eagle	1	+	-	-
Aethopyga siparaja	crimpson sunbird	1	+	-	-
Phylloscopus fuscatus	Dusky warbler	33	+	+	+
Streptopelia decaocto	eurasian collared dove	1	+	+	-
Carduelis carduelis	European goldfinch	2	-	-	+
Rhipidura aureola	White browed fantail	1	+	-	-
Serinus pusillus	fire fronted serin	23	-	-	+
Dicaeum agile	Thick billed flowerpecker	2	+	-	+
Oriolus oriolus	golden oriole	9	+	-	-
Parus major	Great tit	3	+	+	+
Merops orientalis	green bee eater	3	+	+	-
Treron sphenura	Wedge tailed green pigeon	12	+	+	-
Prinia hodgsonii	Grey breasted prinia	31	+	-	-
Dendrocopos canicapillus	grey capped pygmy woodpecker	2	-	+	-
Culicicapa ceylonensis	Grey headed flycatcher	3	-	+	-
Seicercus xanthoschistos	grey hooded warbler	19	+	+	-
Saxicola ferrea	Grey bushchat	1	-	+	-
Lanius minor	Lesser grey shrike	7	-	-	+
Dendrocitta formosae	Grey tree pie	7	-	+	-
Hierococcyx varius	Common hawk cuckoo	8	+	-	-
Megalaima virens	Himalayan barbet	4	-	+	-
Pycnonotus leucogenys	Himalayan bulbul	151	+	+	-
Dendrocopos himalayensis	Himalayan woodpecker	2	-	+	-
Upupa epops	hoopoe	11	+	-	+
corvus splendens	house crow	11	+	+	+
Passer domesticus	house sparrow	185	+	+	+
Apus affinis	house swift	17	+	-	-
Phylloscopus humei	hume's warbler	6	-	-	+
Cuculus micropterus	indian cuckoo	6	+	-	-
Pavo cristatus	Indian peafowl	15	+	-	-
Saxicoloides fulicata	indian robin	64	+	-	-
Aegithina tiphia	iora	2	+	-	-
Turdoides striatus	jungle babbler	133	+	+	-
Corvvus macrorhynchos	Jungle crow	142	+	+	+
Lophura leucomelanos	Kalij pheasant	15	+	+	-
Eudynamys scolopacea	Koel	15	+	+	-
Bubo bubo	Eurasian Eagle owl	2	-	-	+
Streptopelia sengalensis	laughing dove	1	+	-	-
Phylloscopus chloronotus	lemon rumped warbler	14	-	-	+
Dinopium javanense	lesser flameback woodpecker	3	+	-	-
Sylvia curruca	lesser white throat	2	-	-	+
Picus chlorolophus	Lesser yellow nape woodpecker	3	-	+	-
Phalacrocorax niger	little carmorant	3	+	-	-
Egretta garzetta	little egret	21	+	-	-
Tachybaptus ruficollis	little grebe	2	+	-	-
Copsychus saularis	magpie robin	5	+	+	-
Spizaetus nipalensis	mountain hawk eagle	1	+	-	-
Treron bicincta	Orange breasted green pigeon	2	+	+	-
Streptopelia orientalis	Oriental turtle dove	47	+	+	+
Anthus rufulus	paddyfield pipit	2	-	-	+
Milvus migrans	paraiah kite	3	+	-	-
Psittacula eupatria	alexandrine parakeet	6	+	-	-
Francolinus pondicerianus	Grey Francolin	6	+	-	-
Falco peregrinus	peregrine falcon	11	-	-	+
Saxicola caprata	pied bushchat	26	+	-	-
Clamator jacobinus	pied cuckoo	5	+	-	-
Psittacula cyanocephala	Plum headed parakeet	4	+	-	-
Ardeola grayii	pond heron	2	+	-	-
Nectarinia zeylonica	purple rumped sunbird	3	+	+	-
Nectarinia asiatica	Purple sunbird	39	+	+	-
Urochssa erythrorhyncha	Red billed blue magpie	21	-	+	-
Streptopelia tranquebarica	red collard dove	2	+	-	-
Gallus gallus	Red jungle fowl	3	+	+	-
Hirundo daurica	Red rumped swallow	48	+	+	-
Pycnonotus cafer	Red vented bulbul	73	+	+	-
Vanellus indicus	Red wattled lapwing	4	+	-	-
Acrocephalus dumetorum	Blyth's reed warbler	1
Sterna aurantia	river tern	1	+	-	-
columba livia	rock pigeon	201	+	+	+
Psittacula krameri	rose ringed parakeet	26	+	-	-
Lanius schach	Long tailed shrike	91	-	-	+
Oenanthe pleschanka	rufous tailed wheatear	13	-	-	+
Tringa stagnatilis	Marsh sandpiper	1	-	-	+
Lophura nycthemera	Silver pheasant	6	-	+	-
Ficedula tricolor	Slaty blue flycatcher	1	-	+	-
Psittacula himalayana	Slaty headed parakeet	52	-	+	-
Megalaima viridis	White cheeked barbet	10	+	-	-
Streptopelia chinensis	Spotted dove	49	+	+	-
Enicurus maculatus	Spotted forktail	2	-	-	+
Lonchura punctulata	spotted munia	11	+	-	-
Athene brama	spotted owllet	3	+	+	-
Saxicola torquata	Common stone chat	2	-	+	-
Garrulax lineatus	streaked laughing thrush	35	-	+	-
Aethopyga gouldiae	MRS Gould's Sunbird	1	+	-	-
Orthohotomus sutorius	tailor bird	8	-	+	-
Dendrocitta vagabunda	tree pie	15	+	-	-
Sitta frontalis	velvet fronted nuthatch	2	-	-	+
Eumyias thalassina	Verditer flycatcher	2	-	+	-
Tichobroma muraria	wallcreeper	2	-	+	-
Chlidonias hybridus	whiskered tern	1	-	-	+
Lonchura malabarica	Indian silverbill	2	+	-	-
Dicrurus caerulescens	white bellied drongo	4	+	-	-
Halcyon smyrnensis	White breasted kingfisher	12	+	+	-
Chaimarrornis leucocephalus	white capped redstart	5	-	-	+
Zosterops palpebrosus	White eye	24	+	+	-
Parus nuchalis	white naped tit	2	-	-	+
Garrulux albogularis	White throated laughing thrush	6	-	+	-
Hirundo smithii	wire tailed swallow	16	-	+	-
Prinia flaviventris	yellow bellied prinia	1	+	-	-
Dendrocopos mahrattensis	Yellow crowned woodpecker	1	-	+	-
Chrysomma sinense	yellow eyed babbler	4	+	-	-
Carduelis spinoides	Yellow breasted greenfinch	36	-	-	+
Phoenicoptera treron	Yellow footed green pigeon	4	+	-	-
Motacilla flava	yellow wagtail	15	-	-	+
Acridotheres fuscus	Jungle myna

Acknowledgements:

We are grateful to The Department of Science and Technology and Ministry of Science and technology for funding this project. We thank Dr. J.C.Rana at NBPGR who was instrumental in getting our accommodations at CPRI rest house, coordinating the meeting and fieldwork and for his support in procuring data from various other organisations. Dr.Pradeep, Dr.Verma.V.L are acknowledged for the useful discussions during the meeting and for letting us know more about NBPGR. We thank Dr. Archana Singh and Prashanth Bhasim, who accompanied us for the field identification of flora.

We thank the Director, Himachal Pradesh remote sensing agency and Mr.Thapa and other staff involved in this project for explaining the remote sensing part of this project and providing us with valuable data. We also thank Dr. J.C.Sharma for providing us with a report on Mandhala soil types.

We thank Mr.Rajesh Sharma, Block development officer at panchayat office, who took the trouble for us in procuring information related to people living below poverty line for various districts. Mr. R.S. Rathore and Mr.S.S.Thakur are acknowledged for their help in data collection at the Directorate of Agriculture, Shimla.

The D.F.O., Shimla Mr.Naresh Kumar IFS is duly acknowledged for his kind permission to visit the forest areas and also for providing us with working plans and compartment history data. We are thankful to the R.F.O., Dhami range and other field staff of the forest department. The D.F.O., Solan and D.F.O., Keylong are also acknowledged for their kindness in granting us permission to visit the forest areas and collect data. We are grateful to the people of Himachal for the warm welcome and the help we received during the entire fieldwork days.

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