The Western Ghats is rich with flora and fauna and is considered as one of the 34 biodiversity hotspots (also one among eight hottest hotspots of biodiversity) of the world (http://www.conservation.org). The region with a wide range of forest types ranging from tropical wet evergreen forests to grasslands is a repository of rich flora and fauna evident from the occurrence of over 4,000 species of flowering plants (38% endemics), 330 butterflies (11% endemics), 156 reptiles (62% endemics), 508 birds (4% endemics), 120 mammals (12% endemics), 289 fishes (41% endemics) and 135 amphibians (75% endemics). The forests of Western Ghats, in view of their floristic diversity and numerous multipurpose species, are considered a varietal storehouse of economically important plants. The tropical climate complimented by heavy precipitation from southwest monsoon and favourable edaphic factors create an ideal condition for the rich biodiversity, which can be seen only in few parts of the world. The forests which lost their earlier aura of sacredness (during community-based management regime) did not get any special consideration from the state and were subjected to routine forestry operations to meet state needs, harming their special biodiversity preserved through ages. Last few decades, however, have seen increased awareness on the need for conservation and sustainable use of the natural resources. The 1988 ban on timber extraction from natural forests has kindled hopes on biological revival of the Western Ghat forests. The stretch of Central Western Ghats ranges from 12° to 15° covering areas of Coorg district, Hassan, Chikmagalur, Shimoga, and Uttara Kannada.

Shimoga district of Karnataka state is situated in the heart of the Western Ghats region. The Malanad region consists of Western Ghats chain from where many rivers originate and the inland plain region of Deccan plateau. Such regions always have high priority for conservation, primarily for the diversity and for the provision of the ecosystem goods and services.

Shimoga, a malnadu district of the Karnataka State with a geographical area of 8465 sq.km is situated in the mid-south-western part of the State at 13°27' and 14°39'N and 74°38' and 76°4'E. Shimoga  district  has  a  rich  and  varied  flora,  the  major contributing  factors  to  this  variety  being  differences  in  rainfall and topography  within  the  district. In the region of the Western Ghats,  the  rainfall  is  heavy,  Agumbe  has the distinction of receiving higher annual  rainfall  of  8,275. 7 mms.  A  rapid  transition  from  evergreen  flora  to  the scrub type, i.e., from  mesophytic to  xerophytic,  occurs as  one moves from the  west to  the  east. The forests of Shimoga district consists of Evergreen and Semi-Evergreen climax forests and degradation type and deciduous climax forests and degradation type.

Persistence of the Western Ghat endemics and relic species in this forest calls for serious attention to initiate programs immediately for recognizing and salvaging more fragments of such ancient forests that lie hidden amidst a sea of secondary forests. The fact that water course forests have not only rare species but also high biomass and greater carbon sequestration potential also calls for revision of forest management policies, as the innumerable stream courses of Western Ghats offer tremendous potential for carbon stocking per unit area while also bettering the hydrology of these mountains, which form the main watershed for the entire Indian Peninsula. Millions of subsistence farmers and other forest dwellers of Western Ghats can not only be partners in micro-level planning for prudent water use but also stand to gain in a big way from carbon credits for their new role as promoters and guardians of watershed vegetation. This study re-affirms Western Ghats, a repository of biological wealth of rare kind, both in its aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems and indicates strongly the need for adoption of holistic eco-system management for conservation of particularly the rare and endemic fauna of the Western Ghats. The premium should be on conservation of the remaining evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, which are vital for the water security (perenniality of streams or streams having water throughout the year) and food security (sustenance of biodiversity). Through appropriate management there still exists a chance to restore the lost natural evergreen to semi-evergreen forests.

The forested Shimoga district in the central Western Ghats of Karnataka are dotted with several groves with lofty lush-green forest cover known as ‘kaans’; literally meaning  “thick evergreen forests”. These Sacred forests served many functions like conservation of biodiversity and watershed, moderation of climate, and enhancement of landscape heterogeneity which promoted varied wildlife.

State monopoly over forests, beginning with the British, early in the 19th century, spelt an end to the community-based landscape management. Most sacred groves, secondary forests and other unclaimed lands came under state monopoly as reserve forests. State driven and revenue oriented forest management policies focused mainly on timber extraction and on raising of tree plantations. Even the sacred groves of primeval nature were treated like any other forests. Whereas such relic forests, remaining isolated amidst human habitations suffered from extraction pressures from local people themselves, who were denied their traditional rights in the reserved forests, the larger groves of thinly populated areas got merged with secondary forests and lost their sacred value. Their remains today with rare relic species went almost unrecognized in conservation circles, until studies have been initiated from the angle of ecological history.
The fact that water course forests have not only rare species but also high biomass and greater carbon sequestration potential also calls for revision of forest management policies, as the innumerable stream courses of Western Ghats offer tremendous potential for carbon stocking per unit area while also bettering the hydrology of these mountains, which form the main watershed for the entire Indian Peninsula.

Analyses of land cover dynamics highlight the decline of vegetation cover from 96.57 (1973) to 91.72% (2012). Land use analysis reveals that forest vegetation decline from 43.83% (1973) to 22.33% (2012) due to the conversion of forests to agriculture, industrial and cascaded developmental activities. Forest fragmentation analysis indicated that domination of forests receded during post 90’s with the formation of patch and edge forest in all three divisions. Land use changes from forests to non-forests with intensified human interference had been very high especially in Bhadravathi division. Interior forest decreased by 12% during 4 decades. The extent of interior forests ranges from 12.91 (Shimoga) followed by 4.76 (Sagar) and 3.79 % (Bhadravathi). During the last four decades the interior forest declined from 22.9 (1973) to 13 % (2012) in Shimoga, and 15.90 (1973) to 4.76% (2012) in Sagar,  and  4.10 (1973) to 3.79 % (2012) in Bhadravathi divisions emphasizing the need for an immediate eco-restoration measures to arrest fragmentation and consequent reduction in goods and services apart from the increase of human animal conflicts.

Encroachment of forest land (26385 hectares) and conversion to agricultural land is the principal cause of degradation at local levels, apart from land releases for major developmental activities. Talukwise encroachment of forest indicates that Bhadravathi taluk has highest number of encroachments (24.74%), followed by Sagar (17.8), Shikaripur (15.93), Shimoga (15.71), Sorab (11.68%).

Land use and fragmentation analysis reveals that the forest in the district is fragmented necessitating immediate ecological restoration to enhance the hydrological regime in the region. The degradation of the forest in the river basins of Varada and Sharavathi has led to conversion of perennial stream to seasonal stream leading to scarcity of water during monsoon season. In order to provide water to the dependent people throughout the year, there is an urgent need to take up the catchment treatment in all river basins. The catchment treatment essentially involves planting of native species of plants and enriching the region with grass species (wherever grassland occurs).

The Myristica swamps mainly in the downstream catchment area of Sharavathi are highly threatened but nevertheless are ecologically important ecosystems. These swamps have rare and endangered species such as Semecarpus kathalekanensis, etc. Whereas the Myristicas once faced threat from plywood industry, the present threat is from forest encroachers who convert such swamps into arecanut gardens, with telling consequences on watershed and biodiversity. For safeguarding these special habitats the Forest Department, JFM committees and Self  Help Groups should work together. These swamps and their surroundings are very important water yielding forests; at the same time they are most vulnerable places for agricultural encroachment (e.g., Joginmata, Kathalekan, Halsolli etc.). Local forest committees of villagers have to be formed for the protection of such swamps. Rights for harvesting NTFP from surrounding forest may be given to local villagers as an incentive.

The major NTFP of the area is leaves of Diospyros melanoxylon and Cinnamomum zeylanicum. Apart from these, on a minor scale, Emblica officinalis, Terminalia chebula, and various medicinal plants, cane, Bambusa sp., and honey are also collected. Destructive methods of collection of NTFP by lopping the branches of trees like, Myristica malabarica, Garcinia gummigutta, Cinnamomum zeylanicum etc. will affect the endemic tree species.

The industrial extraction of timber from the primary evergreen forests in the past has led to the depletion of valuable endemic species and loss of many special habitats such as Myristica swamps. NTFP collection is to be banned in the core zone of the sanctuary area since it may pose a threat to the endemic tree species and their regeneration. But, in some areas, the community-based approach can be carried out instead of collections done by tenders given to non-locals by the forest department. This approach will be more appealing since each villager will become more responsible for conserving the forests, as removal of a tree would curtail the financial gains through NTFP. Destructive methods of collection of NTFP by lopping the branches of trees have to be stopped.

In SVWS (Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuary), forest enclosures play an important role in order to maintain viable wildlife population. Madenur, Muppane, Hallibyle and Shashichowka are the few forest enclosures with high density of gaur, sambar, and mouse deer. The intention of these enclosures is to provide protection to both flora and fauna of the region. These forest enclosures serve a better protection to some of the vulnerable species from the poachers. Most of these enclosures are planted with monoculture species like, Acacia, Casuarina, etc., which in turn not a suitable habitat for the above mentioned wildlife. In order to maintain the high density of these species, gradual conversion of monoculture into native species As the territories of wild animals extend beyond these enclosures, flocking of wild animals and futile attempts to cross these barriers have been noticed. This suggests the expansion of existing enclosures and creation of new enclosures, which has to be undertaken based on rigorous monitoring of wildlife movement.

Effective vigilance has to be exercised by the forest department in order to stop the further encroachments and poaching of wild animals inside the sanctuary. To avoid water scarcity, large number of water holes/percolation ponds should be constructed inside the sanctuary. The existing awareness programmes such as wildlife weeks, wildlife census, etc., have to be expanded and strengthened in the sanctuary and surrounding areas in order to educate and create awareness among local people. Interaction of forest officials with local people helps to arrive at solutions based on clear understanding of situation in the sanctuary.

Timber smuggling is a major problem even in the sanctuary area. Timber is smuggled even out of the Linganmakki islands, indicating the involvement of some organized groups. The timber smugglers take advantage of the remoteness of the islands from the human settlements for their illegal activities. During the course of the field work, timber harvesting is noticed at many places like, Karani, Banukuli, Kanur etc., within the sanctuary, calling for greater and effective vigilance from the authorities and the village forest committees (VFCs).

Due to fragmentation and reduction of natural habitats with the uncontrolled growth of agricultural practices over several years has resulted in repeated stress over the forest areas and acted negatively on the wildlife. Conflicts between wildlife and human have emerged as a problem in the arena of wildlife management. The conflicts, which result from the destruction of crops and damage to property, have raised both social as well as conservation issues. Efforts to keep animals out of crop fields by wildlife officials have been futile and sometimes result in people perceiving the animals as being malevolent. Thus, human- animal conflict is a common scene over the entire area. Herbivore and omnivore animals like Indian gaur, Indian porcupine, sambar, wild boar, rodents, etc., inflict considerable damage to agricultural crops. Several incidences of sloth bear attack have been reported in the core and buffer zones of the wildlife sanctuary (villages like, Kattinkaru, Karani, Kanur and Kogar). To tackle this problem, fencing the crops is a common procedure, which is detrimental to both wildlife and forests. The fencing material is usually the locally available wooden log, brought from nearby forests. For supplementing the wooden logs, large number of regenerating forest trees were cut down thereby jeopardizing the forest growth itself. These fences act as enclosures for wildlife movement from one place to another.

Hunting is practised as a sport, for subsistence, for crop protection and as a part of religious tradition by many village communities. During night-times, people form groups and go for hunting. A number of communities (Nayaks, Edegaru and Namadari gowdru) in the sanctuary carry out poaching activity. They target on wild animals like mouse deer, rabbit, wild boar, etc., due to which, the wild animal population is decreasing at a rapid rate. People support hunting as it reduces the probable damage to crops. Even some of the birds like spotted dove, cattle egret, pond heron, jungle fowl, peacock etc., are being hunted for meat by the local tribes. Poaching for money is seldom indulged in and gaurs constitute the main victim. Outside people are believed to be coming to the area to carry out this kind of poaching. At least one or two episodes do occur every year. The remoteness of the area and sparsely distributed human settlements are again advantageous to these poachers. In aquatic environment high fishing activity of the local people, licensed fishermen and migratory fishermen has threatened the indigenous fish population along with the endangered tortoise population of the region.

Significant parts of Sharavathi Valley wildlife sanctuary (15.27%) have been planted with monoculture plantations depriving the wildlife of their habitats. Preference of single species in forest plantations is another reason responsible for depletion of fodder for animals. This could become a major drawback to any kind of habitat restoration programmes as well as energy improvement technologies. The practice of planting of acacia and casuarina is still in progress in open areas of Muppane, Aralagodu, Karani, etc. These monoculture plantations have no other advantages to the wildlife, other than aiding as hiding places for some of the small mammals and agricultural pests. Changes in microclimate and huge litter cover in plantations adjacent to the evergreen and semi evergreen forests would inhibit the growth of younger tree species of natural forests.

Grasslands have been converted to monoculture plantations in the forest enclosures like, Madenur, Muppane, and Shashichowka denying the fodder to herbivores like gaur, sambar, spotted deer, etc. The monoculture of any exotic should be strictly discouraged in the areas of high animal population and movement. Any such reforestation activity should be in accordance with the local need and with indigenous species. Gradual shifting of natural plant species in the monoculture plantation areas is to be done. Habitat improvements with fodder plants species preferred by wild animals are to be planted instead of monocultures of acacia, pinus or casuarinas.

Usually in this region, forest fires are associated with highly fragmented areas. The main reasons for the fire are the dryness of the forest and the deciduous vegetation. Humans on a yearly basis to enhance the growth of grasses burn much of the forest ground vegetation. While fire generally does not kill adult trees, it will effectively destroy the seedlings and young trees, thus preventing tree regeneration, creating senescent forests and eventually leading to the disappearance of forests. Almost every year forest department burnt the grassy blanks in some places to improve the quality of fodder for wild animals; this phenomenon also affects the habitat of burrowing small mammals. The fire has become a major factor in the degradation of forests. In order to restore the vegetation, these forests must be protected from fire, by preventing it by undertaking measures such as creation of awareness on the implication of fire among the local communities and proper maintenance of fire line. This plays an important role in the distribution of ungulates and bovines.

Wildlife present in the region are seasonal migrants from adjacent sanctuaries and hence, the corridors used by these animals should be given more attention. Three micro-habitat corridors have been proposed for linking fragmented habitats, so as to have continued link of populations to maintain sufficient viable reproductive groups to permit breeding. Corridors are to be developed with the native species of plants, which meet the food and fodder requirement of fauna during all seasons. The Sharavathi valley wildlife sanctuary has to be extended further so as to link to the Mookambika wildlife sanctuary to facilitate the better movement of wild animals and also conservation of endangered and endemic fauna (like Lion-tailed Macaque) and pristine forest areas (like, Kodachadri, Gurta, Malemane and Kathalekan).

There is an urgent need to establish Sharavathi Valley Ecologically Sensitive Area (SVESA) and Heritage sites for conservation, rehabilitation and sustainable management of ecosystems. It is required to complete the legal procedures for final notification of existing and new protected areas in the Sharavathi River Basin (Sharavathi valley wildlife sanctuary, notified vide government order AFD 70 FWL 71, 20/04/1972). The Wildlife Protection Act  and other environmental laws need to be used in conjunction, so that the ecologically fragile habitats within and outside protected areas including islands, fish breeding areas, mangroves are protected. Wildlife biodiversity conservation programme needs to join hands with other sectoral programmes of the government.

It should be encouraged to voluntary re-location and rehabilitation of people living within the protected areas as in Kanur, Salkodu, Hebbankere, Karani, etc. Local Biodiversity Management Committees and Local Biodiversity Funds (under the Biological Diversity Act, 2002) will have a major role in wildlife conservation of a region. Conservation incentives have to be given to the Joint Forest Planning and Management (JFPM) Committees, forest development agencies and individuals who help and participate actively in the conservation of wildlife and biodiversity. Effective mechanisms for compensation due to loss of life and crops from wildlife need to be worked out. There is a great need to streamline the procedural aspects dealing with compensations to the affected families. Capture and translocation of species (such as leopards, snakes, etc.), and rewards to staff for successful conservation of species need to be worked out. Degraded habitats outside-protected areas must be developed as buffers to withstand the pressures from the peripheral human habitations. Raising and protection of food plants for wildlife in forest blanks as well as in areas dominated by monocultures to be given due importance.

Fish farming may be promoted in de-silted forest ponds to supply more protein food to the people and to wean them from hunting. Poaching and illegal trade has to be prevented by evolving strategies. Creation of awareness and education about the protected areas by effective dissemination of information on wildlife biodiversity conservation needs to be formulated. Formation of eco-clubs/village wildlife protection committees in forest villages is necessary to monitor ecosystems and to create awareness. Creation of wildlife corridors and micro-corridors will facilitate unhindered animal movements and minimise human wildlife conflicts. Limited tourism to promote a positive attitude towards wildlife bio-diversity needs to be done.

In the adjoining areas like, Gerusoppa, Uttarakoppa, Aruvakki etc., Kyasanur Forest Disease (KFD) is more prevalent due to high degree of forest degradation, that has led to the extensive growth of weeds, where in ticks, the main disease vector inhabit. Therefore restoration of full-canopied natural forest in the sanctuary area is of paramount importance.

Encroachment is a major threat to the forests of the region, which should not be allowed and the forest department should take serious steps to stop future encroachments. Here the agriculture and horticulture departments have a vital role to play. The drawbacks in agricultural practices, which lead to hazards like landslides, should be clearly explained to local people. Guiding the farmers for sustainable agriculture should be the primary duty of these departments.

Dependence on fuelwood, dry leaf litter etc. could be minimised by switching over to viable alternatives like biogas, etc., which needs initiations at the village level. Promoting the Gram Panchayaths to organize the villages and form village committees to monitor and manage the village resources can lead to success. There are excellent examples of success through efficient management of the resources in villages like Halkar of Uttara Kannada District, Hunasuru, Kugwe and Alalli of Shimoga, and Maradavalli of Shimoga. The traditional firewood sellers should be brought under strict supervision. The firewood collection should be limited only to dead and fallen trees and on particular days of weeks in the presence of Forest Department officials.

Grazing is a serious problem to forest regeneration and should be controlled. Forest department should encourage the local people to opt for either stall feeding or grazing in grasslands. Advantages of stall feeding include increased dung availability and biogas along with farmyard manure.

Legal actions need to be taken against unauthorized quarrying. The Mines and Geology Department should take immediate initiations towards evacuating the mining area and suitable conservation measures.

The strategy followed in MPM plantation should be reviewed. Only barren lands should be allowed for plantations. Grasslands should not be used for plantation, but for fodder to domestic animals within the village. Depending upon the livestock population of the village and the related constraints in raising the plantations, village specific strategy should be worked out involving local people.

In plantations, preference should be given to human energy instead of mechanized energy during planting and harvesting. This shift has couple of advantages like less disturbance to soil surface and increased employment opportunities to local people.

Most of the degraded forest patches have excellent regeneration capacity considering the rainfall of the area and progress made in protected patches under the scheme of JFPM.

A number of small tanks in the study area have excellent potential to irrigate the agricultural areas. Thus, there is a need to restore the deteriorated tanks, keeping in view the multiple benefits from these tanks.

Stream diversion can negatively act upon the riparian vegetation. The drinking water needs of the village people can be met from the well-conditioned village tanks.

Sharavathi River Basin is rich in the wild relatives of cultivated plants such as mango, jackfruit, Garcinia, gooseberry, nutmeg, ginger, pepper, cinnamon, pepper, turmeric, bitter gourd, snake gourd, pulses, brinjals, grapes, yams, aroids etc. Such plants are part of the gene bank of crop plants.  Forests and other wilderness areas in ecologically sensitive area, which harbour the gene pool of such cultivated plants, are to be conserved.

Domesticated Animal Biodiversity: Effort should be made to document, monitor and encourage through incentives, if necessary, in situ conservation, breeding and distribution of the existing animal diversity. A livestock farm needs to be initiated for the conservation of Malnadu Gidda, the indigenous cattle of the Western Ghats.

Energy and Socio-economic aspects: In the Sagar Forest Division, about 8,903.27 ha of forestland is under Acacia auriculiformis of Mysore Paper Mills Ltd. Large-scale conversion of forests into plantations has deprived the basic NTFP resources to local people and hindered the movement of wild animals. The major impacts were felt in the areas like Ambargodlu and surrounding villages of Sagar Taluk, Jala, Haroyethige, Adugodi, Koteshirur near Nitturu and areas around Melina Besige, Sutta of Hosanagara taluk.

There is a great scope to switch over to biogas to meet domestic energy requirements as most of the households have the potential (animal residues) to install biogas plants. With present available technology, a minimum of four animals is required for family size biogas plant. The study shows that about 88% of the total households have more than four livestock and have the potential to install a biogas plant.

More importantly, in order to cope with the stressful energy situation massive afforestation programmes are very essential. Considering the village commons, Soppina bettas and other traditional use of the lands, village level land use planning is vital in energy planning. The programmes should aim at satisfying the firewood, fodder, timber, NTFP, and greens for farmyard manure requirements of the village.

Conservation of traditional varieties: The genetically diverse traditional varieties are well suited to the local environment. Disappointingly, they are vanishing due to adoption of high yielding varieties, and greater spread of commercial and horticultural crops. The study also revealed that improper usage of modern techniques in agriculture has resulted in devastating effects on the environment. Extensive use of inorganic fertilizers with the adoption of modern agricultural practices has resulted in the conversion of self-sustained traditional system to a system depending on external interventions. This is contributing to non-point source of pollution in the eastern region. The mitigation measures to conserve the traditional varieties are:

• Before introducing any new variety to a particular region, its applicability, suitability and impact on the entire system has to be understood. 
• The departments should evaluate any new introduction before prescribing for this fragile ecosystem.
• The authorities should document and monitor the continuous changes in agriculture. Farmers need to be supported in capacity building to develop their skills and organize their activities.

Small scale conservation of indigenous crops, including tree crops such as mango, jackfruit, kokum, gooseberry, tamarind, drumstick etc. should be promoted for household food security. Women play a greater role in promotion of home gardens using indigenous biodiversity. Home gardens provide food security and provide an additional source of income for women. Even very poor could be part of this production system. Home gardens are important genetic resources of cultivated plants, and other folk knowledge related to the plants.

Organic farming: The concept of organic farming needs to be promoted among the farmers by the concerned Government departments as well as NGOs. Farmers need to be educated regarding the use of biopesticides, compost and vermiculture. Civic bodies to work in close coordination with agriculture department so that organic wastes are regularly composted and made available to the farmers. Pharmaceuticals to sponsor growing of medicinal plants by farmers using organic methods. The creation of village fodder farms will promote stall feeding of cattle and make available more quantity of cattle manure. Organic farming/consumer movement to be promoted by NGOs so that the farmers get better returns for their farm produce.

Kan Forests:
The kan forests of Central Western Ghats of Karnataka, were most often climax evergreen forests, preserved through generations by the village communities of Malnadu regions, as sacred forests, or sacred groves, dedicated to deities and used for worship and cultural assemblage of the local communities. Various taboos and regulations on usage of the kans were self-imposed by the local communities. In the normal course trees were never to be cut, but the adjoining villagers enjoyed the privileges of taking care and gathering of wild pepper, that was abundant in the kans, and many other non-wood produce, demarcating portions of the kans informally between the different families for collection purposes.

The landscape of pre-colonial times had kans forming mosaic with secondary, timber rich forests, grassland and cultivation areas, promoting also rich wildlife. Kans were characteristic in the traditional land use of Shimoga, Uttara Kannada and Chikmagalur districts specially, and were equivalent to the devarakadus of Kodagu region. The kans functioned as important sources of perennial streams and springs used for irrigation of crops and for domestic needs. They moderated the local microclimate favouring the spice gardens in their vicinity, and were also fire-proof being evergreen in nature.

With the domination of Central Western Ghats region of Karnataka by the British, the State asserted its control over the kan lands, which were in thousands, each kan measuring originally from few hectares to several hundred hectares in area. The curtailment of community rights in the kans, including heavier taxation for collection of forest produce resulted in the abandonment of many of them, causing various hardships to the villagers.

Whereas most kans of Uttara Kannada got merged with the rest of the forests ensuring the conservation of rare and endemic species of Western Ghats, in Shimoga district the kans were not properly documented except in Sorab taluk and to some extent in Sagar and Thirthahalli taluks. Moreover the Shimoga kans were brought under either the forest or revenue departments. As communities lost their traditional biomass collection privileges in secondary deciduous forests, in many places they resorted to kans for fuelwood, timber and leaf manure, causing their decline.

As the kans were not of much timber value due to the growth of easily perishable softwoods in them, the British thought it suitable to keep many such under the control of the revenue department. The revenue authorities started allotting these precious watershed areas and reserves of biodiversity for expansion of cultivation, especially of coffee and garden crops, creating widespread fragmentation of the kans. The practice of allotments ranging in area per applicant, individual or organization varied from one or two acres to hundreds of acres each. As the kans under revenue department was given more importance as land resources than as forests, the forests were cleared partially or entirely for alternative land uses.

The rampant use of fire for clearing the evergreen vegetation for cultivation areas or creating grassy areas caused change of climax evergreen vegetation to savannas, scrub and secondary deciduous forests with diminished water flow in the streams and rivers, which can be detrimental to the livelihoods of people in malnadu and beyond even in the drier Deccan plains.

Large chunks of kan lands were allotted to the Mysore Paper Mills for raising of pulpwood plantations, especially in Shimoga district.

Soil erosion, consequent on the clearance of kans, has adversely affected forest regeneration and is also detrimental to cultivation as well as causing siltation of water bodies, resulting in the abandonment of many irrigation tanks adjoining the kan lands.

Kurnimakki-Halmahishikan and Kullundikan in the Thirthahalli taluk of Shimoga district, which are facing severe threats from rampant allotments of large areas to private parties for non-forestry purposes and from conflicting claims of ownership, with the forest department not enjoying adequate power to save these kans from liquidation of their natural vegetation. 

The study in the Kurnimakki-Halmahishi kan of about 1000 ha reveals the vegetation of the kan, though heavily fragmented, due to ever increasing human impacts, nevertheless, is a mosaic of various kinds of forests. The most significant is the discovery of swampy areas within this kan which have few individuals of large sized threatened tree species Syzygium travancoricum, classified in the IUCN Red List as “Critically Endangered”. The tree is on the verge of extinction, and for the Shimoga district, the only occurrence of this tree is the Kurnimakki-Halmahishi kan.

The Kullundikan of about 453 ha has a narrow belt of original tropical rainforest dominated by the tree Dipterocarpus indicus, considered ‘Endangered’by the IUCN. The revenue department in control of this kan, being totally ignorant of its vegetation richness has made several grants within the kan for cultivation of coffee and arecanut. The grantees have also done encroachments within this climax forest area of high watershed value. The cutting of the climax forest for raising coffee or any other crop is totally unjustified.