Western Ghats mountain ranges constitute the gorgeous array of mountains along the west coast of India, separating the Deccan Plateau and a narrow coastal strip (along the Arabian Sea). The mountain range starts from the southern part of the Tapti River near the border area of the states of Gujarat and Maharashtra. Western Ghats mountain ranges cover a length of around 1600 km (8° to 22° N, 73° to 78 °E ) running through a geographical area of about 160,000 km2of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala states finally terminates at Kanyakumari district, in the southern-most tip of the Indian peninsula (Daniel, 1997). Western Ghats starts as a bold westerly escarpment south of the Tapti estuary in Gujarat, reaching almost immediately to a height of over 3000 feet (914.4 m) and then extends in the form of a wall down to Kanyakumari (Cape of Comorin) with only one break or gap at Palghat (Palghat gap); throughout this length the Ghats retain an average elevation of 900 m above sea level with peaks as high as 1800-2400 m, and traverse many geological formations of differing physical and structural characteristics (Gunnel and Radhakrishna, 2001). The landscape is unique in terms of geology, hydrology, biodiversity and ecology. Geology and geomorphology coupled with high rainfall makes the Western Ghats as one of the most ecologically diversified landscapes. The complex geography, wide variations in annual rainfall from 1000-6000 mm, and altitudinal decrease in temperature, coupled with anthropogenic factors, have produced a variety of vegetation types in the Western Ghats. Tropical evergreen forest is the natural climax vegetation of western slopes, which intercept the south-west monsoon winds. Towards the rain-shadow region eastwards vegetation changes rapidly from semi-evergreen to moist deciduous and dry deciduous kinds, the last one being characteristic of the semi-arid Deccan region as well. All these types of natural vegetation degrade rapidly in places of high human impact in the form of tree felling, fire and pastoralism, producing scrub, savanna and grassland. Lower temperature, especially in altitudes exceeding 1500 m, has produced a unique mosaic of montane ‘shola’ evergreen forests alternating with rolling grasslands, mainly in the Nilgiris and the Anamalais (Pascal 1988).

The Western Ghats is rich with different kind of vegetation and topographical features. This bioregion is highly rich with flora and fauna and is considered as one of the 34 biodiversity hotspots (also one among eight hottest hotspots of biodiversity) of the world(http://www.conservation.org).The region with a wide range of forest types ranging from tropical wet evergreen forests to grasslands is a repository of rich flora and fauna (Daniels, 2003; Sreekantha et al., 2007; Gururaja, 2004) evident from the occurrence of over 4,000 species of flowering plants (38% endemics), 330 butterflies (11% endemics), 156 reptiles (62% endemics), 508 birds (4% endemics), 120 mammals (12% endemics), 289 fishes (41% endemics) and 135 amphibians (75% endemics). The forests of Western Ghats, in view of their floristic diversity and numerous multipurpose species, are considered a varietal storehouse of economically important plants. The tropical climate complimented by heavy precipitation from southwest monsoon and favorable edaphic factors create an ideal condition for the luxuriant growth of plant life, which can be seen only in few parts of the world (Gadgil, 1996). The forests which lost their earlier aura of sacredness (during community-based management regime) did not get any special consideration from the state and were subjected to routine forestry operations to meet state needs, harming their special biodiversity preserved through ages. Last few decades, however, have seen increased awareness on the need for conservation and sustainable use of the natural resources (Chandran 1998; Pathak 2009). The 1988 ban on timber extraction from natural forests has kindled hopes on biological revival of the Western Ghat forests.

The stretch of Central Western Ghats ranges from 12° to 15° covering areas of Coorg district, Hassan, Chikmagalur, Shimoga upto south of Uttara Kannada.Shimoga district of Karnataka state is situated in the heart of the Western Ghats region.The Malanad region consists of Western Ghats chain from where many rivers originate and the inland plain region of Deccan plateau. Such regions always have high priority for conservation, primarily for the diversity and for the provision of the ecosystem goods and services.

Due to unplanned developmental activities, large blocks of adjoining forests are being reduced to remnant patches of secondary habitats, affecting the ecology and biodiversity. The impacts of these human induced changes are evident from extinction of species and increased population of exotic/invasive species (Daniels, 2003); vast stretches of barren lands, barren hill tops, reduced water infiltration and lowering of water table with ever increasing demand for water. Implications of the changes in ecosystem structure, function, and distribution, due to global climatic changes and land-use practices have raised serious concerns and also brought a paradigm shift in the approach towards ecosystem from human versus ecosystem to human and ecosystem along with the concept of ‘sustainable development’ in conservation and management of natural resources.(Sameer Ali et.al, 2007). This report assesses the status of forests in Shimoga district, Central western Ghats, and the biological richness of forgotten groves/kans along with the hydrological and ecological linkages. The objectives of current study are:

1. To assess the present status of forests of Shimoga;
2. Land use and land cover [LULC] dynamics in the district considering temporal remote sensing data;
3. Extent of fragmentation of forests and its impact on the ecosystem;
4. Identification of factors responsible for large scale landscape dynamics – land diversions, extent of encroachment, etc.
5. Status of kans/sacred groves in Shimoga district;
6.  Appropriate mangement strategies to sustain forests in the district.

1. SHIMOGA DISTRICT PROFILE

SHIMOGA, a malnadu district of the Karnataka State with a geographical area of 8477 sq.km is situated in the mid-south-western part of the State at 13°27' and 14°39'N and 74°37' and 75°52'E (Shimoga district statistics, 2011). The district is bounded by Uttara Kannada district on the northwestern side, Udupi district on the south western side, Chickmagalur district on the south and south eastern side, Davangere district on the eastern side and Haveri district on the north eastern side (Figure 1).

The name of the district (Shimoga) is related to God Shiva, viz., 'Shiva-mukha' (the face of Shiva), ‘Shivana moogu' (the nose of Shiva) and' Shivana-mogge' (buds of flowers meant for Shiva).  The place has several old sacred places dedicated to Shiva.  According  to  a  legend,  the  place  had  the  ashram  of  the famous  sage  Durvasa  who  was  noted  for  his  sharpness  of  temper. He  used  to  keep  on  the  oven  a  pot  boiling  with  sweet  herbs. Once,  some  cowherds,  who  chanced  upon  it,  tasted  the  beverage out  of  curiosity  and  called  the  place  'Sihi-moge'  (sweet  pot)', which  was  later  called  as  Shimoge.  In  some  epigraphs,  the  place is  referred  to  as  Sheemoge  and  Seemoge  (vide  Shimoga-10, 108  and 3 of 1085  and 1671  A.D.  respectively in  Epigraphia  Carnatica,  Vol.  VII, 1902).  The name is written and pronounced in Kannada as Shivamogge and in Englishform as  ' Shimoga ' (Shimoga district Gazetter, 1975).

Figure 1: Geographic location of Shimoga district, Karnataka State, India

2. ADMINISTRATION HISTORY

The region was under the control of Mauryas and  during third  century  A.D.,  the Satavahanas  took control  of the  district. Subsequently, during  fourth  century  A.D.,  the  Kadambas  of  Banavasi  rose  to  power in  the  region. While the Kadambas ruled the western  portion of  the  district,  the  Gangas  of  Talakad  administered  the  eastern part. In the 6th century, the Chalukyas of Badami defeated  both the  Kadambas  and  the  Gangas  who,  however,  continued  as  the feudatories  of  the  former (Shimoga District Gazetter, 1975). Later, the Gangas lost a major portion of their territory in the district.  In the  seventh  century,  a  principality  was  established  at  Humcha  by  Santara  Deva,  a  Jaina chieftain.  During the next century, the Rashtrakutas of Malakhed established their supremacy over this and other regions.

In  the  10th  century,  Banavasi region  along  with some  other  parts  were  added  to  the  Ganga  kingdom  by  the Rashtrakutas  in  recognition  of  the  help  rendered  by  the  Gangas in  defeating  the  Cholas. In  the  11th  century,  the  Hoysalas became  powerful  and  ruled  over  the  district.  As  a  result  of several  wars  between  the  Hoysalas  and  the  Sevunas  (Yadavas) of  Devagiri,  the  northern  parts  of  the  district  were  held  by  the latter  for  some  time.The Kalachuris were in power for only a short period during the l1th century. Belagutti in this district was  the  capital  of  a  principality  during  this  time  and  also  later. After  the  Hoysala  power  came  to  an  end  in  the  14th  century,  the district  became  a  part  of  the  Vijayanagara  empire. Araga  in this  district  was  the  capital  of  a  province  under  Vijayanagara. About  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century,  the  house  of  the  Keladi Nayakas  (also  sometimes  called  Ikkeri  or  Bidnur  Nayakas) established  themselves  in  the  area. There was also a small principality of Basavapatna in the east of the district. In 1763, Haidar  Ali  captured  Bidnur,  the  capital  of  the  Keladi  Nayakas, and  as  a  result,  this  district  along  with  other  areas  of  their kingdom  was  added to  Mysore (Shimoga District Gazetter, 1975).

After  1799  A.D.,  during  the  early  period of  the  Wodeyars  of  Territorial Mysore,  the  Nagar  Faujdari  included  the  present  Shimoga  and  changes Kadur  (now  called  Chikmagalur)  districts. In 1862, the Shimoga, Kadur  and  Chitradurga  districts  were  formed  into  the  Nagar Division  which  was,  however,  abolished  in  1879.  The Kumsi hobli  (revenue  circle)  was  made  a  separate  sub-taluk  under  the Shimoga  taluk  in  1862.  Nyamati was made the headquarters of  the  Honnali  taluk  in  1869.The  headquarters  of  this taluk was  again  transferred  to  Honnali  in  1882. Davanagere  taluk  was  transferred  to  this  district  in  1882, and  it was  reverted  to  Chitradurga  in  1886.  Till 1882, the Tirthahalli taluk was called Kavaledurga taluk.  The area of the Nagar taluk  was  extended  in  1832-33  by  combining  it with the Anantapur  (now  Anandapuram)  taluk,  but  the  latter  was  re-established  as a  taluk in  1857-58  and continued  as  a  taluk  till  1875 when  it  was  merged  in  Sagar  taluk.  The headquarters of the Nagar  taluk  was  transferred  to  Kallurkatte  (now  called  Rosa-nagar)  in  1893. Twenty-three  villages,  which  formed  a  part  of  the  Shikaripur taluk,  were  transferred  to  the  Sagar  taluk  on  1st  October 1923.  Between 1941 and 1950, the Kumsi sub-taluk was merged with  the Shimoga  taluk,  and  a  separate  new  taluk  of  Bhadravati with  the  Bhadravati hobli  (excluding  five  villages)  and Kudlagere hobli  and  twenty  villages  of  the  Hole-Honnur  hobli  of  the  old Shimoga  taluk  was  constituted. Between 1941 and 1951, three villages namely, Kote-Shirur  Nagodi  and  Hebbige  of  South Kanara  district  which  was  in  the  erstwhile  Madras  State  were transferred  to  the  Hosanagar  taluk (Shimoga District Gazetter, 1975).

3. PRESENT ADMINISTRATIVE PROFILE

Shimoga district with headquarters in Shimoga city is divided into 2 sub-divisions and 7 Taluks. The Shimoga Sub-division comprises the taluks of Shimoga, Bhadravathi and Thirthahalli. The Sagar sub-division comprises Sagar, Shikaripura, Sorab and Hosanagara. The Shimoga district administration is headed by the Deputy Commissioner with additional role of a district Magistrate. Assistant Commissioners, Tahsildars, Shirastedars, Revenue inspectors and Village Accountants help the Deputy Commissioner in the administration of the district (http://www.shimoga.nic.in).

4. POPULATION (http://censusindia.gov.in)

Current population in the district is 17,52,753 and there has been an increase of 6.7% during the last decade. The population in 2001 was 16,42,545 with a population density of 193.77 per sq km implying a growth of 13% during 1991-2001 (http://censusindia.gov.in).  The Shimoga taluk  with  the  maximum  and  Hosanagara taluk  minimum  population  density  as  can  be  seen  in  table 2. Nearly 65% of Shimoga district lives in villages and remaining 35% in towns. Table 1 lists rural and urban population density in 2001 and 2011. There has been an increase of 6.7% during 2001 (1642545) to 2011 (1752753), which is relatively lower compared to 1991-2001 (13.1%). Male population has increased by 5.6% while female population shows an increase of 7.8% during the last decade. Talukwise population and population density is given in Table 2. The district has population density of 206 persons per sq.km (2011) with highest in Badravathi (503.9), followed by Shimoga (462.24) and lowest in Hosanagar (86.16).Talukwise population increase show the variation from 2.2 (Sagar) to 12.06 (Shimoga taluk) during 2001 to 2011. Spatial distribution of population density during 1991, 2001 and 2011 is given in Figure 2, 3 and 4 respectively. Villagewise population densities during 1991, 2001 and 2011 are given in Figure 5, 6 and 7.

Table 1: Population of Shimoga as per 2001 and 2011census

Table 2: Talukwise statistics of population and population density

5. TOPOGRAPHY

The  greater  part  of  the  district  lies  in  the  malnad;  the region to the  west  of  a  line  drawn  from  Shikaripur  to  Gajanur. The eastern portion lies in the maidan region (bailu-seeme) which is an open country. The western region consists of valleys and hill ranges sloping west to east with a maximum altitude of 640 and 529m. The Malnad region  is  characterized  by  mountains  with  heavy  rainfall,  covering Thirthahalli,  Sagar,  Sorab  and  Hosanagara  taluks.The semi-malnad regions comprising  Shimoga,  Bhadravati  and  Shikaripur  taluks  lie  in  the eastern  part  having  vast  stretches  of  plain  lands  with  low  and  rising hillocks with low vegetation (Shimoga district Gazetter, 1975). The western side of the district is a very mountainous area and is part of the Western Ghats.  The famous ghats in the district are Agumbe ghat,  Hullikal  ghat  and  Kollur  ghat,  the  peaks  are  Kodachadri-1343m, Agastya-parvata-848m,  Govardhanagiri-848m,  Chandragutti-848m  amsl  in the  central  zone.  The  prominent  hills  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  area  are Kavaledurga-969m and Kabranagara-1031m amsl. Kodachadri is a fine peak of 1,343 m height situated about 16.1 kms North-west of Nagar (Shimoga district Gazetter, 1975). The lowest point in the district at Nagavalli valley in Sagar Taluk is just 66 m above the sea level. The interior part of the district is traversed by a series of hills, running from Mandagadde northwards between Anandapura and Kumsi and by a range from Allawadi westwards through Ikkeri to Talguppa (Ramaswamy et.al, 2001).

6. CLIMATE

The western parts of Shimoga district forms part of the Western Ghats and Malnad region, which includes the mountainous and forest areas lying to the western edge of the Ghats. Remaining portion of the district falls under southern maidan area consisting of broad undulating plateau with elevations ranging from 600 to 1000 m. The area enjoys tropical climate throughout the year. Generally, the weather  is  hot  and  humid  in  the  eastern  part  and  very  pleasant  in  the remaining parts of the area. The relative humidity ranges from 27 to 88%, the wind speed recorded is between 4 and 7 km/hr (Government of India, CGWB, 2007).  The evapo-transpiration is normally high in ghat section as compared to plain in the east.

Summer prevails between March to early June, the wet months start from early June to September. October and November month experiences small amount of rain by North East monsoon. The winter commences in mid-November and ends in the middle of February. After January, there is rapid increase of temperatures. April is  usually  the  hottest  month  with  the  mean  daily  maximum temperature  at  35.8°C and  the  minimum at  22°C.On  individual  days  during  the  summer, the  day  temperature  rises  upto  about 38°C .With  the onset of the south-west monsoon  in  the district  early  in June, there is  appreciable  drop  in  the  day  temperatures. After October, both the day and night temperatures decrease steadily till about January and later begin to increase. In December, the mean daily maximum temperature is 29.2°C and the mean daily minimum is 14.9°C (Government of India, CGWB, 2007).

Figure 2: Population density (1991) across taluks of Shimoga district	Figure 3: Population density (2001) across Taluks of Shimoga district
Figure 4: Population density (2011) across Taluks of Shimoga district
Figure 5: Population density Villagewise 1991	Figure 6: Population density Villagewise 2001
Figure 7: Population density villagewise 2011

6.1 RAINFALL

Shimoga district receives an average rainfall of 2421mm (Government of Karnataka, Annual rainfall report 2011). Table 3 lists rain gauge stations in the district. Taluk wise rainfall data for the last 10 years, suggests that average annual rainfall  in  the  district  varies  between  769.4  mm  at  Bhadravati,  which  is located  on  eastern  most  part  of  district  and  3201  mm  at  Hosanagar located  on  western  most  part  of  the  district (Government of Karnataka, Annual rainfall report, 2011). Table 4 lists talukwise rainfall during 2011.

Daily rainfall data of 87 rain gauge stations for 109 years (1901-2010) was collected from the Bureau of Economics and Statistics, Govt. of Karnataka. Mean annual rainfall and the standard deviation were calculated for all the rain gauge stations to know annual variability.In Tirthahalli taluk a place named Agumbe, which records highest rainfall in Karnataka has recorded an average annual rainfall of 2671mm. The taluk head quarters Sorab, which is the northern most taluk, has recorded an average annual rainfall of 1410mm. The rainfall pattern suggests a steady decline in rainfall as we move from west to east. The highest annual rainfall of 4380.80 mm was recorded at Hosanagar during the year 2000 and the lowest annual rainfall of 407.0 mm was recorded at Sorab during the year 2001 (Government of India, CGWB, 2007). Spatial variation in the annual rainfall is depicted in Figure 8 and monthwise variations are illustrated in Figure 9.

Table3: Raingauge stations of Shimoga district

Table 4: Talukwise Average Monthly Rainfall (mm)-2011(Annual rainfall report-2011,GoK)

Figure 8:  Mean Annual rainfall distribution from 1901-2010 for Shimoga district
Figure 9: Monthwise mean rainfall for Shimoga district
January	February
March	April
May	June
July	August
September	October
November	December

7. RIVERS

The important rivers that flow through the Shimoga district are Tunga, Bhadra, Tungabhadra, Sharavati, Kumudvati and Varada.   Figure 10 provides the network of streams of each of these rivers. Figure 11 provides the location of major rivers in the district. The  Tunga  and  the  Bhadra  unite  to  form  the  Tunga-bhadra  at  Kudali  in  Shimoga  taluk,  14  kms  From Shimoga. The Kumudvati and the Varada are tributaries of the Tungabhadra (Shimoga district Gazetter, 1975).

1. Tunga: The River Tunga rises in the Western Ghats at Gangamula (1,199 m) in Varaha Parvata in Chikmangalur district and flows in Shimoga district for a length of 64.4 kms. First it flows towards north-east past Sringeri to Baggunji, where it turns north-west and continues in the same direction till it reaches Tirthahalli taluk. Near Tithahalli Begarahalla from Sringeri joins it. Then it flows north east past Shimoga to Kudali where it unites with the Bhadra. Near Mandagadde it branches for a short distance into seven streams and it is called Yelukallu Seelu (Shimoga district Gazetter, 1975).

2. Bhadra: The Bhadra traverses a distance of 51.5 Km in the district is one of the two main tributaries (Bhadra and Tunga) which union to form Tungabhadra. Like its sister stream Tunga it also arises in the Western Ghats at Gangamula in Varaha Parvata in Chikmangalur district. It flows along the western base of the Baba Budan mountains and enters the Shimoga district in the south of Shimoga Taluk. Then it runs north past Bhadravathi and Hole-Honnur and unites with Tunga at Kudali in Shimoga Taluk. Across this river a reservoir has been constructed near Lakkavalli (Shimoga district Gazetter, 1975).

3. Tungabhadra: The river Tungabhadra traverses a distance of 48.3 Kms in Shimoga is formed by the union of Tunga and Bhadra tributaries at Kudali. The river runs north of the district to the border and there from takes a northeastern direction to Harihar. From there it runs north until it joins Varada at left. Then it turns north-east and joins Krishna a few kms below Kurnool town in AndhraPradesh (Shimoga district Gazetter, 1975).

4. Sharavathi: The River Sharavathi rises at Ambuteertha near Kavaledurga in Teerthahalli Taluk. Its total length in the district is 32.2 kms and flows in a north-westerly direction and receives  the  Haridravati  on  the  right  below  Pattaguppe  and  the Yenne-hole  on  the  left  above  Barangi. Near the border of the district,  it  bends  to  the  west  and  hurls  down  the  ghats  near Jog. It joins sea at Honnavar in North Canara /Uttara Kannada district.

5. Kumudvati: The Kumudvati or Choradi, a tributary ofthe Tungabhadra, rises in Agastya-Parvata or the Bileshvara-betta near Humcha and flows for a distance of 17.7 kms in the district. Itflows  north  near  Kumsi  and  Shikaripur  and  continuing  in  thesame  direction,  it  forms  the  large  Madaga  tank  on  the  veryborder  of  the  district.  From  there,  turning  north-east,  it  runsinto  the  Tungabhadra  at  Mudanur. 

6. Varada: The Varada, another tributary of the Tungabhadra, rises at Varadamula near Ikkeri in Sagar taluk,runs  north  past  Chandra-gutti  (Sorab  taluk)  and  Banavasi  (Sirsi  taluk  of  North  Kanara)andturns  to  the  north-east.  Entering the Dharwar district, it flows north, bending round gradually to the north-east.  South  of Bankapur  and  Savanur,  it  runs  with  an  easterly  course  into  theTungabhadra  at  Galaganatha  below  Havanur (Shimoga district Gazetter, 1975).

7. Minor streams: A number of small streams rise in this district.The  Haridravati,  the  Sharmanavati,  the Kushavati,  the  Gargita,  the  Varahi  and  the  Dandavati. The first three rise in Agastya-Parvata or Bileshvara-betta near Humcha.  Haridravati and the  Sharmanavati  flow  north-west  into the  Sharavati,  the  Kushavati  runs  south  into  the  Tunga.  The Gargita  rises  between  the  Kodachadri-Parvata  and  Kavalednrga and  descends  to  South  Kanara  from the  head  of  the  Haidar-ghar ghat.  The Varahi, rising in Tirthahalli taluk, flows through Hosanagar  taluk  and  enters  the  South  Kanara  district  at Kunchikal-Abbe  (Kunchikal  Falls).  In Sorab taluk, flow a good number  of  small  streams  of  which  Nagarahalla,  Yelavatadahalla, Gudvihalla,  Kannanamanehalla  and  Kuppehalla  are  relatively more  important. Many small streams unite into the Dandavati, which,  rising  near  Sorab,  flows  north  and  west  into  the  Varada near  Jade.

Figure 12 lists the distribution of numerous waterbodies (lakes, ponds, etc.) occurring in the drier part of the district.  1643 wetlands occupy 4.6% of geographical area with an area 40630.9 ha. District has three reservoirs viz., Linganamakki reservoir, Talakakale Balancing reservoir, Ambligola reservoir. Geological area covered by the wetlands based on their size is given in the table 5.

Table 5: Number of wetlands and % area covered based on the size of wetlands

Figure 10: Drainage network of Shimoga district

Figure 11: Major Rivers of Shimoga district

Figure 12: Water bodies of Shimoga district

8. GEOLOGY

Geologically, the Shimoga district consists of the most ancient rock  formations  (Figure 13) of Archaean  complex,which  are  composed  chiefly of  two  systems,  the  Dharwar  system  (usually  called  Dharwarschists)  and  the  gneissic  system (Shimoga district Gazetter, 1975). Nearly  a  two thirds  area  of  the  district  is  covered  by  the Dharwar  schists,  the  Shimoga  band forming  a  prominent  belt  from west  to  east  and  occupying  a  larger  area.  This belt is made up of various  types  of  schists,  chiefly  chloritic and in  places  micaceousor  hornblendic,  associated  with  volcanic  rocks  of  different  types. Along  with  them  are  found  some  highly  altered  sedimentary  rocks such  as  quartzites,  conglomerates,  limestone,  shales  and  banded iron  stones  (ferruginous  quartzites) (Shimoga district Gazeeteer, 1975).The  gneissic  system  is  much  younger  than  the  Dharwar  Granitie system  and  it  chiefly  consists  of  granites  and  granitic  gneisses.The granitic rocks vary in their structure, texture, colour and other similar characteristics.The  granites  in  Shimoga  district  occur  as islands  in  the  schists  forming  three  principal  exposures. One of them surrounding  Honnali  is  called  "Honnali  Granite",  the second  one  near  Saulanga  is  called  "  Saulanga  Granite",  and  the third  one  to  the  north-west,  north-east  and  east  of  Shimoga  is called  " Shimoga  Granite " (Shimoga district Gazetter, 1975). Fairly extensive outcrops of gneisses are noticed along thewestern parts of the district. The rock,  which  is  banded,  consists of  quartz  feldspar  and  biolite  mica  in  variable  proportions. Laterite  is  another  geo1ogical  formation  which  occurs  in patches  in  the  western  parts  of the district.Some of the laterites contain ferruginous and manganese patches (Shimoga district Gazetter, 1975).

9. SOIL

Reddish to brownish clayey loamto lateritic soil occur in major parts of the district (Figure 14). Thin strips of yellowish loamy soil are seen along the banks of major river and nallah courses. In general these soils are acidic in nature. The thickness varies from few centimeters to 3.50 m. The sandy soil is also identified in the areas where the Archaean gneissic complex occurs. It is coarse grained highly porous and permeable in nature. The thickness of this soil varies from few cms to 5.00 m.  The  rate  of  water  infiltration  in  this  soil  is  remarkably  higher  than  the clayey loam. Red soil as noticed at the contacts of granites and schistoserocks is medium grained, highly permeable and having neutral pH value.The thickness of the soil varies from less than one metre (<1m) to 9.00 m and  is  having  an  average  rate  of  water  infiltration  capacity  about  2.4cm/hr.  The  mixed  soil  occurs  in  the  areas  where  the  schistose  rock  is predominant.  It is of medium to fine-grained and permeable with higher moisture content. The thickness of this type of soil ranges from 0.5 m to29 m and is having the water infiltration capacity of about 0.60 cm/hour (Government of India, CGWB, 2007).

Figure 13: Geology of Shimoga

Figure 14: Soil of Shimoga

Figure 15: Minerals of Shimoga

10. MINES AND MINERALS

Mining  has  been  known to  have  flourished  in  the  past  in  the  Mines and district.  It is  one  of  the  important  districts  known  for  mining  at present  also.  Several places in the  district  have  relics  of  ancient iron  industry  which  prove  that  the  people  of  the  district  were familiar  with  mining and details of old workings of mines are not available.Most  of  the  economic  minerals  of  the  district  such  as  iron  ore,  manganese  ore,  limestone,  etc.,  occur in  the  Dharwar schists (Figure 15).

• Iron ore: Iron  ore  deposits  (haematite  and  limonite)  are  found  in  the Dharwar  schist  belt.  Limonitic types occur near Shankaragudda and Chattanahalli near Kumsi and capping the hill ranges near Agumbe.  The recent investigations of the Department of Mines and  Geology  in  the  Western  Ghats  region  have  disclosed  the existence  of  many  deposits  of  iron  ores of medium  grade. They are located near Mattimane, Kodachadri, Kotebare and Ambar-gudda.  The deposits in the Kotebare area are of the haematitic type (Shimoga district Gazetter, 1975).

• Manganese ore: There  are  fairly  extensive  deposits  of  low  to  medium  grade manganese  ore  in  the  district  whichare  distributed into four  zones.One  zone  runs  north-south,  bordering  the  western  edge  of  the Shimoga  granite  and  consists  of  Kumsi  deposits  in  the  north passing  southwards  through  Shankaragudda  and Mandagadde deposits,  ending  with  Jayapura  deposits  of  the  southern  end.  The second  zone  runs  within  the  schists  to  the  north  of  Saulanga granite  and  forms   the  Shikaripur  group  consisting  of  Markande,lttigehalli,  Ballur,  Hosur  and  Kagenalli  deposits (Shimoga district Gazetter, 1975)  The third zone lies  to  the  east  of  Shimoga  granite  area  and  comprises  groups  of deposits  in  the  Tarikere  and  Channagiri taluks.  These groups include a number of small deposits to the south of Joldhal, Badigunda, Siddarahalli and Balekallu.  The fourth  zone  consists  of  a  few  deposits  in  the  ferruginous  quartzite area,  which  are  exposed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Shantisagar(Sulekere)  forming  high  ridges  to  the  north-west  and  south-west of  the  lake.

• Lime-stone: Lime-stones, varying in compositions from high calcium to dolomitic  siliceous,  argillitic  and  other  types,  occur  as  bands  for a  long  distance  in  Dharwar  schists.  They occur to the north-east of  Kumsi,  to  the  north  of  Bikkonahalli  to  the  east  of  Bhadravati, to  the  north-west  and  north-east  of  Honnali,  to  the  south  of Channagiri  and  a  few  other  places  in the  district.

• Chromite: Chromite,  the  principal  ore  of  chromium,  has  been  found  near Harenahalli,  Jhandimatti  and  Antargange,  associated  with  iron-ore grains.  Two small patches have been located in association with serpentine  (a  secondary  mineral,  the fibrous  varieties'  of  which form  the  asbestos-chrysotile)  to  the  south  of  Ambikatta  hill. However,  these  deposits  are  found  to  be  of  low  grade  and  of  no commercial  importance.

• Building Stones: Building stones of different types (granites, some type of schists,  dark-gray  basic  traps,  jaspery  rocks,  lime  stones,  soap-stones,  laterite,  etc.,)  are  found  in  abundance  all  over the  district. Granites vary in their colour, structure, texture and grain size, giving rise  to  numlemus  varieties  such as  pink,  red or gray  granites, homogeneous  or  porphyritic  coa:rse,  medium  or  fine-grained, uniform  or  veined  and  so  on. Many of these are being quarried and used locally.  Granite, laterite and sand are used as building and road-constructional materials.

• Clay: Clay of good quality occurs at Tirthahalli.  It is being mined and levigated.  The washed clay is being utilised in the paper and porcelain manufactures.

11. ROAD AND RAIL NETWORK

Shimoga has a total road length of 6632 km with 2 national highways (222 km) and 11 state highways (402 km). Figure 16 depicts the distribution of road and rail connectivity in the district.

Figure 16: Rail and road network of Shimoga

12. VEGETATION

The  Shimoga  district  has  a  rich  and  varied  flora,  the  major contributing  factors  to  this  variety  being  differences  in  rainfall and topography  within  the  district.  In the region of the Western Ghats,  the  rainfall  is  heavy,  Agumbe  getting  an  annual  average rainfall  of  8,275. 7 mm.  As one proceeds to the east, the rainfall decreases very rapidly, Honnali recives annual rainfall of about 600 mms. Terefore, a  rapid  transition  from  evergreen  flora  to  the scrub type, i.e., from  mesophytic to  xerophytic,  occurs as  one moves from the  west to  the  east.  Magnificent evergreen flora covers a narrow belt  in  the  Western  Ghats  and  it  gradually  merges  into  the  moist deciduous  towards  the  east  and  south.  The far-eastern and northern portions are scrubby and comparatively little-wooded.The forests of Shimoga district consists of Evergreen and Semi-Evergreen climax forests and degradation type and deciduous climax forests and degradation type (Pascal et.al, 1982). The Evergreen and Semi-Evergreen climax forests and degradation type consists following categories: Dipterocarpus indicus-Humboldia brunonis-Poeciloneuron indicum type, Dipterocarpus indicus-Diospyrus candolleana-Diospyros oocarpa type, Dipterocarpus indicus-Persea macrantha type, Persea macrantha-Diospyros spp.-Holigarnaspp. type, Diospyros spp.- Dysoxylum malabaricum-Persea macrantha Kan forest type of low elevation(0-850m). The secondary or degraded type contains secondary moist deciduous forests. The Deciduous climax forests consist of moist deciduous type-Lagerstoemia microcarpa-Tectona grandis-Dillenia pentagyne type and dry deciduous-Anogeissus latifolia –Tectona grandis-Terminalia tomentosa type (Figure 17).  The areas of different types of forests are given in Table 6 and spatial distribution (derived from Figure 17) is given in Figure 18.

Figure 17:  Taluk wise forest distribution (Pascal et.al, 1982)

Figure 18: forest types in the district

Figure 19: Vegetation distribution of Shimoga district(classification as per Champion and Seth, 1968)

Table 6: Spatial extent of different classes of forests (Pascal et.al, 1982)

As  per  the  revised  classification  of  forest  types  of  India  by Champion and Seth  (1968),  the  fol1owing  forest  types  are  occurring in  Shimoga  district (Figure 19) :-

1. Southern tropical wet evergreen forests (Sub-group lA),
2. Southern tropical semi-evergreen forests (Sub-group 2A),
3. South Indian moist deciduous forests (Sub-group 3B),
4. Southern tropical dry deciduous forests (Sub-group 5A),
5. Southern tropical thorn forests (Sub-group 6A)

Evergreen and Semi-evergreen belt : The  evergreen  forest  is  confined  to  the  west  of  the  district with  magnificent  tree  vegetation.  Many of the hills are covered with heavy forests while valleys and ravines produce luxuriant trees known for their great height and size. Typical patches of evergreen and semi-evergreen forests occur in places like Hulikal, Kodachadri, Nittur, Nagavalli and Jog along the Western Ghats at an elevation upto 800 m receiving a rainfall of more than 200cm. Based on the average height attained by the floristic elements, the vegetation in these forests shows a 3-tiered arrangement (Ramaswamy et.al, 2001).

1. Top canopy or emergent layer: This layer consists of trees which are 25-40 m or more tall with their crown raised from the general canopy surface. Some of important species are Dipterocarpus indicus, Vateria indica, Artocarpus hirsuta, Hopea parviflora, Mesua ferrea, Artocarpus integrifolia, Mangiferaindica, Machilus macrantha, Michelia champaca, Alstonia scholaris, Hopea wightiana, Diospyros ebonum, Lagerstroemia sp. Syzygium canarensis etc.

2. Middle canopy: This is the second layer represented by medium sized trees of height of 12-20 m. They are adapted to sub-canopy conditions. Some of the important species in this layer are Aporusa lindleyanea, Chrysophyllum roxburghii, Holigarna arnottiana, Stereospermum personatum, Strychnos nux-vomica, Vitex altissima etc.

3. Lower canopy: This is the layer consisting of innumerable number of woody shrubs and small trees of average height of 3-12 m. The important floristic elements are Clerodendrum viscosum, Callicarpa tomentosa, Grewia tiliifolia, Rauvolfia densiflora, Saraca asoca etc.

Moist deciduous forest belt: The  moist  deciduous  forest  is  found  in  the  extreme  north  of  Sorab  taluk  extending  towards  south.These types of forests are found in regions where the altitude ranges from 600-1000m and the annual rainfall varies from 150-350 cm. The width varies from belt 16 to 64 or 82 kms.It includes the timber producing forests and much sandalwood. In this belt, one can observe the Kans of Sorab  and  the  rich  fields  of  Sagar,  Nagar  and  Tirthahalli.  The prominent moist deciduous species of this belt are sagwvani (Tectona grandis, Linn. f.), beete (Dalbergia latifolia, Roxb.), honne (Pterocarpus marsupium, Roxb.), matti (Terminaliatomentosa, W.  & A.), Jambe (Xylia  dolabriformis,  Benth.),  hunal(Terminalia  paniculata,  Roth.) , Nandimara  (Lagerstroemia  lanceoIata, Wall.),  bage  (Albizzia  lebbeck,  Benth.),  bilwara  (Albizzia odoratissima,  Benth.), tadasale  (Grewia  tiliaefolia,  Vahl.),  gandha-garige  (Toona  ciliata,  Roem.),  kadavala  (Anthocephalus  eadamba, Miq.), bileburuga (Geiba pentandra, Gaertn.), mashe  (Alseodaphne semicarpifolia,  Nees.),  tare  (Terminalia  bellerica,  Roxb.),  kanagalu (Dillenia  indica,  Linn.),  srigandha  (Santalum  album,  Linn.),  and others.The  eastern  limit of this  belt commences  near Anavatti in  thenorth  and  runs  south-east  to  half-way  between  Shikaripur  and Honnali  and  thence  due  south  to  Sakrebyle  from  where  it runs due  east.  Along  the  western  confines,  trees  proper  to  the  ever-green  forests  occur  frequently(Ramaswamy et.al, 2001).

Dry deciduous forest belt: The  dry  deciduous  forest  belt  lies  to  the  east  of  the  mixed  Dry deciduous deciduous  forest  belt  in  the  district.  The tree vegetation in this belt part  is  much  inferior  and  the  trees  are  of  smaller  growth.  Dry deciduous  species  met  with  in  this  area  are  dindiga  (Anogeissus latifolia, Wall.), ippe  (Bassia longifolia, Macbride.), kalnara  (Hardwickia  binata,  Roxb.),  bevu  (Azadirachta  indica,  A .. Juss.), dale (Terminalia  chebula,  Retz.),  nelli  (Emblica  officinalis,  Gaertn.), srigandha  (Santalum  album,  Linn.),  and  others.  Among the thorny forest species are honge (Pongamia  pinnata,  Pirre.) ,seetaphala  (Anona  squamousa,  Lin.),  antavala  (Sapinduslaurifolias,  Vahl.),  karigeru  (Semicarpus  anacardium,  Linn.  f.), hunase (Tamarindus  indica,  Linn.),  kare  (Randia  dumetornm), urimullu  (Zizyphus  oenoplia),  bilijali  (Acacia  leucopholea), karijali  (Acacia  nilotica) (Ramaswamy et.al, 2001)

Scrub forests: These types of forests are found in eastern part of the district, with a low rain fall (less than 75 cms).  These forests consist of thorny species interspersed with a few malformed deciduous trees. In most places these types of forests are converted into agricultural lands. Some of the tree species of this forest are Bauhinia racemosa, Casssia fistula, Catunaregam spinosa, Diospyros Montana, Flacourtia indica, Phyllanthus emblica, Santalum album, Zizipus sp, Asparagus racemosus, Blepharis asperrima, Hemidesmus indicus etc (Ramaswamy et.al, 2001). Table 7 lists the flora of Shimoga district based on Ramaswamy etal., 2001 and field work carried out during 2012. Table 8 lists endemic species of Shimoga district (Radhakrishna et.al, 1992)

Table 7: Flora of Shimoga District (based on Ramasamy et.al, 2001 and field invetigations)

Table 8: Endemic species of Shimoga district (Radhakrishna et.al, 1992)

References

1. Census of India: www.censusindia.gov.in.
2. Champion, H.G and Seth. S.K. 1968). Arevised Survey of the forest types of India. Government of India Publications, New Delhi.
3. Chandran MDS (1998) Shifting cultivation, sacred groves and conflicts in colonial forest policy in the Western Ghats. In: Grove RH, Damodaran V, Sangwan S (Eds) Nature and the Orient: The Environmental Historyof South and Southeast Asia, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, pp 674-707.
4. Conservation International, http://www.conservation.org.
5. Daniels, R.J.R. 2003, Biodiversity of the Western Ghats: An overview. In ENVIS Bulletin: Wildlife and Protected Areas, Conservation of Rainforests in India, A.K. Gupta, Ajith Kumar and V. Ramakantha (editors), Vol. 4, No. 1, 25 – 40.
6. Daniel, R. J. R, (1997), Taxonomic Uncertainties and Conservation Assessment of the Western Ghats, Current Science, 73(2), 169-170.
7. Gadgil, M, (1996), Western Ghats: A Lifescape, Journal of the Indian Institute of Sciences, 76, 495-504.
8. Government of India Ministry of Water Resources (2007) - Central Ground Water Board, Ground Water Information Boklet Shimoga district, Karnataka.
9. Government of Karnataka Annual Rainfall Report of 2011, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Bangalore.
10. Gunnel Y. and Radhakrishna B.P. (2001). Sahyadri: The Great Escarpment of the Indian Subcontinent. Memoir 47(1), Geological Survey of India, Bangalore.
11. Gururaja K.V. 2004, Sahyadri Mandooka,
    http://wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/sahyadri_enews/newsletter/issue6/index.htm
12. Karnataka State Gazeteer Department, Shimoga District Gazetter-1975.
13. Pascal JP (1988) Wet Evergreen Forests of the Western Ghats of India: Ecology, Structure, Floristic Composition and Succession, Institut Francais De Pondicherry, Pondicherry, 345 pp.
14. Pascal, J.P., Sunder, S.S. and Meher-Homji, M.V. (1982), Forest Map of South-India, Shimoga. Karnataka and Kerela Forest Departments and the French Institute, Pondicherry.
15. Pathak N (2009) –Ed- Community Conserved Areas in India: A Directory, Kalpavriksh, Pune, 812 pp.
16. Ramaswamy, S.N., Rao.M. Radhakrishna and Govindappa. D.A.  (2001). Flora of Shimoga District, Karnataka, University Printing Press, Manasagangothri.
17. Rao. M. R, Ramaswamy. S.N. and Nagendran. C.R.  (1993).  A checklist of endemic species of the Indian region occurring in the western Ghats of Shimoga district, Karnataka, Journal of Mysore University, Vol.33, 131-137.
18. Sameer Ali, Rao.G.R, Divakar Mesta, Sreekantha, Vishnu D.Mukri, Subhashchandran M.D., Gururaja K.V., Joshi.N.V, and Ramachandra.T.V, 2007. Ecological Status of Sharavathi Wildlife Sanctuary Sahyadri Conservation series-1, ETR-19. Centre For Ecological Sciences,Indian Institute of Sciences, Bangalore.
19. Sreekantha, Subhash Chandran, M.D., Mesta, D.K., Rao, G.R., Gururaja, K.V. and Ramachandra T.V. (2007), Fish diversity in relation to landscape and vegetation in central Western Ghats,  India. Current Science.

Aporosa lindleyana	Argostemma courtallense
Ixora brachiata	Knema attenuate
Myristica malabarica	Vateria indica
Holigarna grahamii	Holigarna arnottiana
Impatiens gardeneriana	Euonymus indicus
Habenaria longicorniculata	Lagerstroemia microcarpa
Ervatamia heyneana	Desmos lawii
Crotolaria filipes	Tolypanthus lagenifer