STATUS OF WILDLIFE

Wild fauna diversity is one of the most gracious gifts of nature to the region.Wildlife has been diminishing at an alarming rate during recent years, particularly during the last 20-25 years as a result of deforestation, fragmentation of animal habitats, etc.Wildlife and wildlife habitat play a vital role in the ecological and biological processes that is essential to life itself. The functioning of the biosphere, and hence the maintenance and enhancement of human life, depends on countless inter actions among plants, animals and micro organisms.These ecological processes are essential for agriculture, forestry, fisheries and other endeavours necessary to human life. They also help maintain environmental quality by degrading and otherwise removing some pollutants and by preventing waste accumulation. Some of the biological processes in which wild species play a key role are pollination, germination seed dispersal, soil generation, nutrient cycling, predation, habitat maintenance, waste break down and pest control. Wildlife habitat regardless of whether it is upland or wetland habitat, is significant because of a number of functions it performs to support wildlife. Wildlife needs adequate space and habitat for the basic life requirements (Sameer Ali et.al 2007).

The primary step taken towards conservation and management measures is to preserve a small proportion of forest and declare it as bioreserve, wildlife sanctuary or national park. The criteria followed in this regard, involved prioritising regions based on naturalness, diversity, rarity and or uniqueness, and size. Such planned actions were aimed at preserving and conserving biodiversity and natural resources of a region/nation or at larger scale contributing to global biodiversity. At the same time, it helps in improving local biodiversity and the environment in and around such areas in a natural and protected environment (Sameer Ali et.al 2007). The areas having significant conservation value are declared as national parks and wildlife sanctuaries under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, which was amended in 1991. The Act specifies that, the state governments are empowered to declare any area as a sanctuary or a national park as per the procedures, for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife or its environment. The National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries have been studied for ecological significance and to implement measures to conserve endemic and endangered species of flora and fauna.

There are two wildlife sanctuaries and one bird sanctuary in Shimoga forest circle.

1. Shettihalli Wildlife Sanctuary
2. Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuary
3. Gudavi Bird Sanctuary
   

1. SHETTIHALLI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Shettihalli wildlife Sanctuary with a spatial extent of 395.6 Sq.km is spread over parts of three taluks of Shimoga district: Shimoga, Hosnagara and Thirthahalli taluks (Figure 1). It is situated between 13° 40' to 14° 5' N and 75° 10' to 75° 35' E (Karnataka forest department, 2006). The vegetation in the region mainly consists of dry deciduous, moist deciduous and semi evergreen types. This Sanctuary was constituted under the government notification No.Afd.47.F.W.L.74 dt 31st October 1974. After declaration of Shettihalli wildlife Sanctuary, protection and development activities towards better management of wildlife had been initiated by wildlife wing of forest department.

The Karnataka Forest Act, 1963 and Rules 1969 regulate working in the forest areas. The State has 5 National Parks and 22 Wildlife Sanctuaries covering an area of 6576.76 sq. kms, which forms nearly 15.17% of the total forest area as protected area(http://karnatakaforest.gov.in). Wildlife (Protection) Act was enacted during 1972 by Government of India to provide for the protection of wild animals, birds and plants and with a view to ensuring the ecological and environmental security of the country.

	North: From Ayanur along the southern portion of Ayanur-Hosnagara road upto Rippenpet running from East to West.
	South: From Konandur the boundaries of Riponpet, Hanagere and Thirthahalli range forest area upto Mandagadde running from West to East.
	West: From Ripponpet along eastern portion of Ripponpet-Tirthahalli road including Mugudthi state forest upto Konandur which runs north to South.
	South-East: From Mandagadde along the western portion of Shimoga running from South to North-East: Starting from Shimoga, the line runs along the western portion of Bangalore-Honnavar road upto Ayanur (Karnataka forest Department, 2006)
Figure 1: Shettihalli wildlife sanctuary, Shimoga

The overall area of the sanctuary is plain to undulating with a few pockets consisting of very steep and undulating terrains and hillocks. These consist of perennial nalas and a number of small streams. The highest peak is Shankaragudda with an altitude of 1031 meters. The Sanctuary receives rainfall from south west monsoon. The intensity of rainfall is more during June to September with an average rainfall of 2000 mm. The average minimum and maximum temperatures are 12° C and 38º C respectively (Karnataka forest Department, 2006).

Figure 1: Shettihalli Wildlife Sanctuary

History

During early 20th century the forest within Sanctuary were under the control of Previously State of Mysore. For better management of forests and wildlife these forests were declared as ‘protected forests’ during 1905-1920. Table 1 details the spatial extent of forests in Shettihalli Wildlife Sanctuary.

Table 1: Forests in Shettihalli wildlife sanctuary

Name of Forest	Extent (in Ha)
Hanagere RF	6755.0
Kudi RF	2730.0
Harohitlu RF	1795.00
Masaruru RF-Block vii 1,2,3,6,7,8,9	1060.0
Kumadhwathi RF	3817.0
Baruve RF- vii 12 to 14	807.0
Mugudthi RF	194.0
Anesara RF	1819.0
Puradal RF	2591.0
Shankar RF	9330.0
Sacrebyle RF	3886.0
Arakere MF	368.0
Anupinakatte MF	497.0
Basavapure MF-XII 1	317.0
Bedankalmatti MF-XII 2,3	693.0
Keegadi MF-XIII 20	144.0
Talale MF-XIV13	242.0
Kullunde MF-XIV14	204.0
Halasavala MF- XIV10	325.0
Kanagalakoppa MF- XIV11	150.0
Mandagadde MF-XIV8	223.0
Bommenahalli XIV15	50.0
Mandagatta MF	942.0
Kittanduru MF VIII23	294.0
Bide MF VIII24	209.0
Muniyur MF VIII 25	332.0
Anupinakatte Pltn	87.0
Sacrebyle Pltn	100.0
TOTAL	39560.00

During 1960-1965 Linganamakki reservoir was constructed in Sharavathi river valley, which led to submersion of many villages. The people affected by this Hydro-Electric project were shifted from protected area and allowed to settle in Shettihalli Wildlife Sanctuary. In this way more settlements of rehabilitated village come into existence in the sanctuary leading to encroachments and clearing of forests. The animals found in this sanctuary are Tiger, Panther, Wild elephant, Bison, Sambar, Spotted Deer, Barking deer, Mouse deer, wild pig, Porcupine, Sloth bear, Wild Cats etc. In Shettihalli Wildlife Sanctuary there are both natural forests and artificial plantations. It consists of 11 reserve forests, 14 minor forests and 3 plantation areas (Karnataka forest Department, 2006). 

Vegetation:

Forest types:

1. Southern tropical dry deciduous type: This type of forests is seen in Puradal, Anesara, Sacrebyle, Shankargudda, Kudi and part of Hanagere state forest. The top canopy consists of Terminalia tomentosa, Terminalia bellerica, Tectona grandis, Anogeissus latifolia, Lagerstroemia lanceolata etc. The second canopy consists of Wrightia tinctoria, Zizyphus zuzuba, Santalum album, Emblica officinalis, Cassia fistula, Shorea talura, Randia domatorum and bambbos etc. The ground floor consists of grassy patches.
2. Southern tropical moist deciduous type: This type of forest is seen on the western side of the sanctuary i.e, part of Hanagere state forest, Kumadwathi state forest, Mugudthi state forest etc. Bambusa aurundanasea and Dendrocalamus strictus occur throughout the area.Terminalia tomentosa, Tectona grandis, Lagerstroemea lanceolata, Adina cardifolia, Dalbergia latifolia, Xylia xylocarpa, Grewia tiliafolia are the other species.
3. Semi evergreen type: This type of forests is seen in parts of Hanagere state forests and Kumadwathi state forests. The importantspecies found areDipterocarpus, Hopea, Terminalia, Hopea, Xylia, Michelia and Bambusa species.

Plantations:The sanctuary has about 6000 Ha of Teak plantations.

Aquatic habitat:The Tunga reservoir bordering the sanctuary has a good population of otter, fish, and some crocodiles, water birds like Cormorants and Snake birds visit the river island near Mandagadde. 

The butterfly diversityinvestigations in Tiger-Lion safari Thyaverekoppa, revealed the presence of 57 species of butterflies, representing 5 familiesPramod Kumar et.al, 2007. Papilionidae is represented by 5 genera and   10 species; Lycaenidae by 8 genera each with one species. Nymphalidae by 21 genera with 28 species; Pieridae by 7 genera and 8 species and hesperidae by 3 genera each with one species. The checklist of all species observed is given in Table 2.

Table 2: Butterflies along with their status in the Tiger-Lion safari, Thyavarekoppa

Sl.No.	Scientific name	Common name	Status
	Family Papilionidae
1	Graphium agamemnon (Linnaeus)	Tailed Jay	C
2	Graphium nomius (Esper)	Spot Swordtail	C
3	Graphium sapedon (Linnaeus)	Common Blue Bottle	R
4	Pachlioopta aristolochiae(Linnaeus)	Common Rose	R
5	Pachlioopta hector (Linnaeus)	Crimson Rose*	VC
6	Pachlioopta pandiyana (Moore)	Malabar Rose*	R
7	Papilio demoleus (Linnaeus)	Lime Butterfly	VC
8	Papilio polymnestor (Cramer)	Blue Mormon**	R
9	Papilio polytes (Linnaeus)	Common Mormon	C
10	Troides minos (Cramer)	Southern Birdwing*	R
	Family : Lycaenidae
11	Alphnaeus vulcanus (Fabricius)	Common Silverline	R
12	Arhopala amantes (Hewitson)	Large Oak Blue	R
13	Castalius rosimon (Fabricius)	Common Pierrot	VC
14	Discolampa ethion (Westwood)	Banded Blue Pierrot	C
15	Jamides bochus (Stoll)	Dark Cerulean	C
16	Lampides boeticus (Linnaeus)	Pea blue	C
17	Talicada nyseus (Guerin-Meneville)	Red Pierrot	C
18	Zizeeria karsandra (Moore)	Common dark Grass Blue	VC
	Family: Nymphalidae
19	Acraea violae (Fabricius)	Tawny Coster	VC
20	Ariadne merione (Cramer)	Common Castor	R
21	Byblia ilithyia (Drury)	Jocker	C
22	Cupha erymanthis (Drury)	Rustic	C
23	Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus)	Plain Tiger	R
24	Danaus genutia (Cramer)	Striped Tiger	C
25	Euploea core(Cramer)	Common Indian Crow	VC
26	Hypolomnas bolina (Linnaeus)	Great Eggfly	R
27	Hypolomnas misippus(Linnaeus)	Danaid eggfly**	C
28	Junonia almana (Linnaeus)	Peacock Pansy	R
29	Junonia atlites (Linnaeus)	Gray Pansy	R
30	Junonia hierta (Fabricius)	Yellow Pansy	C
31	Junonia iphita (Cramer)	Chocolate Pansy	C
32	Junonia lemonias (Linnaeus)	Lemon Pansy	VC
33	Junonia orithya (Linnaeus)	Blue Pansy	C
34	Lethe rohria (Fabricius)	Common tree brown	R
35	Melanitis leda (Linnaeus)	Common Evening Brown	VC
36	Moduza procris (Cramer)	Commander	R
37	Mycalesis patnia (Moore)	Glade eye Bush brown**	R
38	Mycalesis perseus (Fabricius)	Common Bush brown	C
39	Neptis hylas (Moore)	Common Sailer	VC
40	Orsotrioena medus( Fabricius)	Nigger	C
41	Phalanta phalantha (Drury)	Common Leopard	VC
42	Polyura athamas (Drury)	Common Nawab	R
43	Symphaedta nais (Forster)	Baronet**	VC
44	Tanaecial lepidea (Butler)	Grey Count	R
45	Tellewo limniace (Cramer)	Blue Tiger	VC
46	Ypthima baldus (Fabricius)	Common Four Ring	VC
	Family: Pieridae
47	Anaphaeis aurota(Fabricius)	Pioneer	VC
48	Catopsilia pomona (Fabricius)	Common Emigrant	C
49	Catopsilia pyranthe(Linnaeus)	Mottled Emigrant	VC
50	Colotis danae (Fabricius)	Crimson Tip	R
51	Delias eucharis (Drury)	Common Jezebel**	R
52	Eurema hecabe (Linnaeus)	Common Grass Yellow	VC
53	Hebomoea glaucippe (Linnaeus)	Great Orange Tip	R
54	Valeria valeria (Joicey & Talbot)	Common Wanderer	C
	Family : Hesperiidae
55	Borbo cinnara (Wallace)	Rice Swift	C
56	Gangara thyrsid (Fabricius)	Gaint Red Eye	R
57	Spialia galba (Fabricius)	Indian Skipper	R
VC - Very Common; C-Common; R- Rare
* - Endemic to Western Ghats; ** - Endemic to Peninsular India and Sri Lanka.

Animals (Karnataka forest Department, 2006):  22 species of mammals (Table 3), 42 birds (Table 4), 10 reptiles (Table 5), 6 Amphibians (Table 6) and 16 fishes (Table 7) have been reported from the Sanctuary (Source: Shimoga wildlife division).

• Prey animals: Spotted deer, Sambar, Indian Gaur,Indian wild Boar, Indian porcupine, Hare and common langurs.
• Predators: Panthers, Tigers, Indian wild dogs, Pythons and King Cobras, Jackals, Hyenas and vultures.
• Other Animals:Elephants, Sloth bear, Malbar Squirrel, Monkeys, Tortoise.

Table 3: Mammals of Shettihalli wildlife Sanctuary

Sl. No.	Species name	Common names
1	Macaca sinica	The Bonnet monkey
2	Pithecus entellus	Hanuman monkey
3	Loris lydekkerianus	Slender loris
4	Felis affinis	The tiger
5	Felis affinis	The Jungle cat
6	Acinonyx venaticus	The hunting leopard
7	Mangos mungo mungo	Indian mungoose
8	Canis indicus	The Indian Jackal
9	Lutra lutra	The common Otter
10	Melurus ursinus	The sloth bear
11	Tragullus meminna	Mouse deer
12	Pteropus giganteus	The Indian flying fox
13	Lyroderma lyra lyra	Vampire bat
14	Petaurista philippensis	South Indian flying squirrel
15	Seiurus malabaricus	The Malabar Squirrel
16	Seirus	The Bison
17	Muntiacus vaginalis	The barking deeer
18	Rosa unicolor	The sandbur
19	Axis	The spotted deer
20	Sues cryostats	The Indian Wild Boar
21	Hystrix leucra	The Indian Porcupine
22	Manis crassicaudata	The Indian Pangolin

Table 4: Birds of Shettihalli Wildlife Sanctuary

Sl. No.	Species name	Common Name
1	Corvus macrorhynchos	Jungle Crow
2	Palaeornis torquatus	Common Indian parrot
3	Neopharon ginginianus	Vulture
4	Haliastur indus	Brahminy kite
5	Crocopus chlorogaster	Green pigeon
6	Columba intemedia	Blue rock pigeon
7	Pavo cristatus	Pen fowl
8	Gallus sonnerati	Gray jungle fowl
9	Gallooerdix spadicea	Red Sour Fowl
10	Francolinus pondicerians	Gray patridge
11	Sarkidiornis melanotos	Comb Duck
12	Dendrocygna javanica	The Whistling teal
13	Nettium crecea	Common teal
14	Gallus bankiva murgi	Red jungle fowl
15	Dendrocitta rufa	Tree pie
16	Dumetia hyperithra	The Rufous-Hellied Babbler
17	Otocompusa jocose fascucaudata	Southern Red Whiskered Bul Bul
18	Saxicolodes cambaiensis	India Robin
19	Pycnonotus luteolus	White browed bulbul
20	Terpsiphone paradisi	Paradise flycatcher
21	Cyornis tickellioe	Blue flycatcher
22	Tephrodornis pondiceriana	common  woodshrike
23	Pericocotus speciosus	The Scarlet minivet
24	Dicururus macrocerus	The king Crow
25	Dissemurus sctorius	The Rocket tailed drongo
26	Orthotomus sctoricus	The Tailor Bird
27	Acredotheres trestis	The Common myna
28	Gymnoris xanthocolis	Yellow throated Sparrow
29	Hirindo rustica	The Common Sallow
30	Hirundo filifera	Wire tailed Swallow
31	Dicoem erythrorthyncum	Tikells Flower peacker
32	Leopicus blanfordil	Yellow frinted pied wood pecker
33	Centropus parroti	Southern crow pheasant
34	Alcedo benghalensis	Common king fisher
35	Sarcogyps calvus	Black Vulture
36	Astur dussumier	The Indian shikhara
37	Oenopopelia transquebarica	The red turtle dove
38	Amauromis phoenicurus	The white breasted water hen
39	Bulbulcus coromandus	Cattle egret
40	Nettion crecca	The common teal
41	Demdrocygna javanica	common whistling teal
42	Niroca rufa	The white Bye

Table 5: Reptiles found in Shettihalli Wildlife Sanctuary

Sl. No.	Species name	Common Name
1	Crocodilus palustris	The Mugger
2	Testudo elegans	The land Tortoise
3	Gonotodes mysorenisi	The Monitor lizard
4	Calotes versicolor
5	Chameleon calcaratus	Chameleon
6	Python molures	Python
7	Tropidinotus stolatus	Common Green Snake
8	Bugarus coeruleus	Krait
9	Naja tripudians	Cobra
10	Vipera resselli	Viper King cobra

Table 6: Amphibians of Shettihalli Wildlife Sanctuary

Sl. No.	Species name	Common Name
1	Rana hexadactyla	Green tank frog
2	Rana tigrina	Bull frog
3	Rana cyanophlyctis	Skipper frog
4	Rana malabarica	The Tree frog
5	Rhacophorus pleuroxtictus	Tree frog
6	Rana verrucosa kalloula	The Plantain frog

Table 7: Fishes of Shettihalli Wildlife SanctuarySanctuary

Sl. No.	Species name	Common Name
1	Clarias batrachus	The Black cat fish
2	Saccobranchus fossillis	Scorpin fish
3	Wallago attu
4	Callichrous bimaculatus	Butter fish
5	Pseudotropius atheronoides	Lady fish
6	Macrones vittatus	Pidler
7	Macrenes ao
8	Macrenes kelitius
9	Barbus tor
10	Barbus neilli
11	Berbus sarana
12	Labeo kontius
13	Labeo boga
14	Mastocembalus armatus
15	Ophioce halus puntatus
16	Oleucopunctatus gachua

Social Aspects: The sanctuary has 32 enclosures and 70 villages inside the sanctuary. The size of the revenue enclosure varies from few house hold to a maximum of 110 household.95% of the people are dependent on agriculture. There are about 383 families and 616.18 Ha of encroachment before 1978 and 1292 families and 989.43 Ha after 1978 within the sanctuary, totally occupying 1605.61 Ha of the forest. (Karnataka forest Department, 2006).

Encroachment: There are about 383 families and 616.18 Ha of encroachment before 1978 and 1992. 989.46 Ha after 1978 within the sanctuary who occupied 1605.61 Ha. (Karnataka forest Department, 2006)

Park Zonations:The Sanctuary is classified into zones as per the norms, for better management of the sanctuary. The details of Zonations are as follows:

• Core Zone: This Zone comprises part of Hanagere state forest and part of Shankar state forest, excluding the enclosures. The area of core zone is 100.60 Sq.Km.
• Buffer Zone: This Zone includes Purdal state forest, part of Anesara and Shankar state forest, entire Sacrebyle, Kudi and Kumadwathi state forests, Harohithlu, Masarur, Baruve, Mugudthi state forests. Excluding enclosure the total area of buffer zone is 237.4 Sq.Km.
• Tourism Zone: It includes parts of Shankar, Kudi, Sacrebyle and Kumdwathi state forests. Tourism zone also includes Lion safari at Thyavarekoppa, Elephant camp at Sacrebyle and Bird Sanctuary at Mandagadde. The total area is 57.60 Sq.Kms.

Tourism: The following are the existing tourism facilities:

1. Tiger and Lion safari, Thyavarekoppa: Tiger and lion Safari was established in the year 1988 at Thyavarekoppa. A safari park is a place of education, enterainment and enlightment and a breeding place of endangered species. The total extent of safari is 195.0 hectares.
2. Sacrebyle elephant camp: It is situated on Shimoga-Mangalore highway and it is 14 Kms from Shimoga city. There are 19 elephants and 2 calves at present.
3. Mandagadde Bird Sanctuary: It is about 30 Kms from Shimoga on the left side of Shimoga-Tirthahalli main road.This is an island in Thunga River and 1.14 Acre in extent. This ia a place for the migratory birds which come for breeding and feeding.

6.3 SHARAVATHI VALLEY WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Geographically Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuarylocated between  13°  54’   to 14˚ 12’ North and  74° 38’   to 75˚ 00’ Eastin central Western Ghats region of Karnataka state (Figure 2).Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuary was notified vide Government order No. AFD70/FWL71/ Dated 20.04.1972 and has an area of 431.23 Sq. Kms. with a final notification No. AFD/12/FWL/74 Dated 27.06.1974. It is spread over in the Sharavathi River Valley of Sagar Taluk in Shimoga District. The area of the Sanctuary is 431.23 Sq. Kms out of which an area of 123.63 Sq. Kms is under the water spread of Sharavathi Reservoir. The Sanctuary lies in the Western Ghats, mainly covered with evergreen and semi-evergreen forests in the valleys and grassy patches on hill tops, and are immensely rich in flora and fauna both in variety and diversity. The boundaries of the sanctuary are as follows: Jog S.F., Thalakalale Reservoir and Karagal S.F. form the northern boundary of the Sanctuary.Eastern boundary of Sharavathi Reservoir forms the Eastern boundary of the Sanctuary. The southern part consists of Mukambika Wildlife Sanctuary and North Canara District boundary. Common boundary of Shimoga and North Canara district forms Western boundary of the Sanctuary. The area is highly undulating with altitudinal range of 94 mts. MSL at Nagavalli to 1102 mts. MSL at Edigudda and consists of valleys and hillocks. The area is marked by perennial nalas and a large number of small streams. The forests are rich with evergreen and semi evergreen species and dense undergrowth.The climate is of monsoon type. The intensity of rain fall is more during June to September by the regular south west monsoon. The break of the monsoon is attended by high velocity wind. The temperature varies from 11˚ C to 38˚ C depending upon the factor of elevation.The rainfall, particularly during monsoon, is very heavy. The sanctuary is exposed to torrential showers during April, May and October with heavy showers in June, July and August. The erosive action of the torrential rain can be noticed in open areas. In areas devoid of vegetation cover the, top soil gets washed out with water resulting in unproductive, barren lateritic surfaces. The average rainfall of the area is 4500 mm.

Brief history

This sanctuary area previously came under the control of the princely State of Mysore. The MysoreKingdom had shown keen interest towards the protection of forests, and for better management of forests and wild-life, all the forest areas had been declared as State Forests during 1905-1940. Since then, these forests have been managed in a systematic way for fulfilling the needs of people.During 1964-65, Linganamakki dam was constructed across the Sharavathi River which led to submersion of many villages and forest areas. The people affected by this hydro-electric project were shifted from the project area and allowed to settle in various other places. After the submersion of forest area many big and small Islands has created. The study of these Islands shows good vegetation due to least biotic pressure and inaccessible. There are 31 Islands found in the sanctuary (Karnataka forest Department, 2006).

Figure 2.1: Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuary

After the enactment of the Wildlife (protection) Act, 1972 and Forest Conservation Act, 1980, more emphasis has been given for protection of wildlife and in creating awareness among the people about the need to conserve wildlife. Then onwards the protection and development activities towards the better management of wildlife in the sanctuary were commenced and continued by the wildlife wing of the Forest Department. With the handing over of the sanctuary areas to the wildlife wing by the territorial wing, these activities have been further intensified in a systematic way.Thewildlife division has been functioning independently since 01.08.1993 after taking over of 6 State Forests, submersion area and islands, from Sagar Territorial Division. Details of State Forests and other areas coming under Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuary are given in Table 81.

Table 8.1:Details of forests in Sharavathi valley wildlife sanctuary

Sl. No.	Name of the forest	Legal status	Block No.	Compartment No.	Area in Ha.
1	Govardhanagiri	SF	XX	1–34 (34)	13473.68
2	Karini	SF	XXI	1-17 (17)	5102.53
3	Muppane Bl. A	SF	XIX	4,5,6,7 (4)	961.77
4	Muppane Bl. B	SF	XIX	8,9,10,11 (4)	629.16
5	Channagonda (part)	SF	XIX	13 (part)	701.05
6	Attigodu	SF	XIX	1,2,3 (3)	763.70
7	Submerged area				12363.00
8	Islands				507.00
9	Others				8621.11
	TOTAL				43123.00

Land-use analysis was done using maximum likelihood classifier and percentage compositions of various categories of land-use are listed in Table 8.2; the same is depicted in Figure 2.2. The forest cover in the sanctuary is about 49.5% and 17.6% is water body at full level of the reservoir.

Table 8.2: Land-use analysis (%area) in SVWS.

Classification	Area (%)
Built-up	8.62
Evergreen to semi-evergreen	35.63
Moist-deciduous	13.84
Plantation (Areca/Acacia/Casuarina)	15.27
Water body	17.64
Agriculture	2.66
Open land	6.35

Figure 2.2: Land-use in  Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuary

Vegetation types inside the sanctuary area including islands (in the reservoir) vary from grassland to evergreen forest. The vegetation type in the core zone and buffer zone varies from moist-deciduous to evergreen forest. But in few places, grasslands, especially on hill tops, are interspersed with evergreen forests. Scrub jungles to semi-evergreen forests are more prevalent in the tourist zone of the sanctuary. The species richness suggests that semi-evergreen forests have more species due to the combined presence of both evergreen and deciduous species. The evergreen forest in the sanctuary area is more fragmented and disturbed and this is clearly depicted in the Shannon’s diversity index. The percentage evergreenness and endemic plants are more in the evergreen forest area.

The sanctuary has a variety of habitats that support rich flora of herbs, shrubs and climbers of which about 215 species have been recorded. Evergreen to semi-evergreen forests and grasslands of the Western Ghats have the largest congregations of endemic herbs. Some of the herbs are exclusive to specialised habitats like tree trunks and wet rocks. The increasing human impact and openings in forest canopy as well as over grazing are posing threats to many of these rare plants.

Evergreen to semi-evergreen forests are the major source of perennial waters. On the other hand in the deciduous tract, the streams mostly dry up in the summer months. Therefore conservation of evergreen forests and restoration of such forests are of paramount importance. Bulk of the water flow into reservoir comes from natural forests. Unfortunately, in some parts of the sanctuary area, monoculture plantations have been raised causing the drying up of streams and impoverishment of the ecosystems as a whole. Since the plantations do not yield any fodder or NTFP, the rural population is put to great hardship. Therefore such land-uses are not desirable in the sanctuary area. The numerous streams and the banks of Sharavathi and Venkatapura rivers and their tributaries in the evergreen to semi-evergreen forest belt are lined with characteristic riparian vegetation of which the notable tree species are Calophyllum apetalum, Elaeocarpus tuberculatus, Mastixia arborea, Hydnocarpus laurifolia, Madhuca neriifolia, etc. Towards the drier forests, water bodies are lined with tree species such as Pongamia pinnata, Madhuca neriifolia, Hopea wightiana, Bambusa sp., etc. The riparian vegetation plays a crucial role in protecting the water bodies from siltation, creating shade conditions to maintain appropriate temperature regime for sustaining populations of endemic fishes, amphibians, phytoplankton, zooplankton and aquatic insects. Of late there has been numerous instances of misuse of the banks of streams and rivers in the catchment area causing severe upsets in the characteristic biota associated with them. Stream waters are often diverted to newly created horticultural farms, thereby,  affecting the water flow into the reservoir. During field observations, it was noticed that the endemic vegetation patches were associated with perennial streams. The estimated basal area per hectare is highest for evergreen forests and is decreasing from semi-evergreen to scrub. But higher Shannon diversity for semi-evergreen compared to evergreen, may be due to disturbances and canopy openings, which pave way for the addition of some pioneers and other secondary species. Plant species of the sanctuary are listed in Table 8.3 and the percentage evergreens and percentage endemics range from evergreen towards moist deciduous (Table 8.4).

Table 8.3: Plant species in SVWS

Species name	Family	Habit	Distribution
Abrus pulchellus	Faboideae	Climber	Oriental and Paleotropic
Abutilon persicum	Malvaceae	Shrub	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Acanthospermum hispidum	Asteraceae	Herb	Neotropic
Achyranthus aspera	Amaranthaceae	Herb	Pantropical
Acronychia pedunculata	Rutaceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Actinodaphne hookeri	Lauraceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Adhatoda zeylanica	Acanthaceae	Shrub	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Aeginetia indica	Orobanchaceae	Herb	Indomalaysia to Japan
Aerides maculosum	Orchidaceae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats
Aeschynomene aspera	Faboideae	Herb	Paleotropics
Aganosma cymosa	Apocynaceae	Climber	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka
Aglaia anamallayana	Meliaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Aglaia roxburghiana	Meliaceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Aglaia sp(bark not red)	Meliaceae	Tree
Aglaia sp (red bark big leaf)	Meliaceae	Tree
Alangium salvifolium	Alangiaceae	Straggler	Oriental-W. Ghats
Allophylus cobbe	Sapindaceae	Shrub	Oriental-S. India, Sri Lanka,
Alpinia malaccansis	Zingiberaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Alseodaphne semicarpifolia	Lauraceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Alstonia scholaris	Apocynaceae	Tree	Oriental to Australian
Alysicarpus bupleurifolius	Faboideae	Herb	Indomalaysia, China
Ammannia baccifera	Lythraceae	Herb	Paleotropics
Amoora polystachia	Meliaceae	Tree	Oriental-India, Sumatra
Amorphophallus bulbifer	Araceae	Herb	India, Burma
Anamirta cocculus	Menispermaceae	Climber	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Ancistrocladus heyneanus	Ancistrocladaceae	Climber	Oriental-W. Ghats
Andrographis ovata	Acanthaceae	Herb
Species name	Family	Habit	Distribution
Angelonia biflora	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	S America
Anisomeles indica	Lamiaceae	Undershrub	Indomalaysia, China
Annonaceae member	Annonaceae	Climber
Antidesma menasu	Euphorbiaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Apama siliquosa	Aristolochiaceae	Shrub	Oriental-W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Aphyllorchis montana	Orchidaceae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats
Ardisia solanacea	Myrsinaceae	Shrub	Oriental-Peninsular India
Arenga wightii	Arecaceae	Palm	Oriental-W. Ghats
Argostemma courtallense	Rubiaceae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats
Argostemma verticillatum	Rubiaceae	Herb	Oriental-India
Arisaema tortuosum	Araceae	Herb	Oriental- Himalayas, W.Ghats
Aristolochia indica	Aristolochiaceae	Climber	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka
Artabotrys zeylanicus	Annonaceae	Sca.shrub	Oriental-W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Artocarpus gomezianus	Moraceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Artocarpus heterophyllus	Moraceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Artocarpus hirsutus	Moraceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Asclepiadaceae member_1	Asclepiadaceae	Climber
Asclepias curassavica	Asclepiadaceae	Herb	Neotropic
Asparagus racemosus	Liliaceae	Climber	Palaeotropics
Asystasia crispata	Acanthaceae	Herb
Atalantia wightii	Rutaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Bacopa monnieri	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	Tropics
Bambusa arundinaceae	Poaceae	Reed	Oriental-Throughout India
Bauhinia racemosa	Faboideae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia, China
Begonia integrifolia	Begoniaceae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats
Begonia malabarica	Begoniaceae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats
Beilschmiedia fagifolia	Lauraceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Bhidea burnsiana	Poaceae	Herb	Oriental-Peninsular India
Bidens biternata	Asteraceae	Herb	Asiatic
Biophytum sensitivum	Oxalidaceae	Herb	Western peninsular India, Sri Lanka
Bischofia javanica	Euphorbiaceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Species name	Family	Habit	Distribution
Blachia denudata	Euphorbiaceae	Shrub	Oriental-W. Ghats
Blepharis asperrima	Acanthaceae	Herb	Western India
Boehmeria glomerulifera	Urticaceae	Climber	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Boehmeria platyphylla	Urticaceae	Herb	South west India, Sri Lanka
Boesenbergia pulcherrima	Zingiberaceae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats
Bombax ceiba	Bombacaceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Breynia retusa	Euphorbiaceae	Shrub	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka
Bridelia scandens	Euphorbiaceae	Shrub	Oriental-W. Ghats
Buchanania lanzan	Anacardiaceae	Tree	Oriental-India, Myanmar
Burmannia coelestis	Burmanniaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Butea monosperma	Faboideae	Tree	Indomalaya
Calamus sp.	Arecaceae	Climber	Oriental-W. Ghats
Calicopteris floribunda	Combretaceae	Climber	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Callicarpa tomentosa	Verbenaceae	Tree	Oriental-South India
Calophyllum apetalum	Clusiaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Calophyllum tomentosum	Clusiaceae	Tree	Oriental, Paleoarctic
Calotropis gigantea	Asclepiadaceae	Climber	Tropical Asia
Calycopteris floribunda	Combretaceae	Straggler	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Canarium strictum	Burseraceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Canscora decurrens	Gentianaceae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats
Canscora decussata	Gentianaceae	Herb	Tropical Africa, Madagascar, India
Canscora perfoliata	Gentianaceae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats
Canthium dicoccum	Rubiaceae	Tree	South India, Myamnar
Canthium parviflorum	Rubiaceae	Shrub	Oriental-W. Ghats
Capparis rheedei	Capparaceae	Sca.shrub	Oriental-W. Ghats
Carallia brachiata	Rhizophoraceae	Tree	Oriental to Australian
Careya arborea	Lecythidaceae	Tree	Oriental-Himalayas to Sri Lanka
Carissa inermis	Apocynaceae	Sca.shrub	Oriental-Peninsular India
Caryota urens	Arecaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Casearia Sp.	Flacourtiaceae	Tree
Caseria rubescens	Flacourtiaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Species name	Family	Habit	Distribution
Cassia fistula	Faboideae	Tree	Oriental-China, Indomalaysia
Cassia mimosoides	Faboideae	Herb	Tropics
Cassia tora	Faboideae	Herb	Tropics
Cassine glauca	Celastraceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Cayratia trifolia	Vitaceae	Climber	India, Ceylon, Malacca
Celosia argentea	Amaranthaceae	Herb	Tropics
Celtis cinnamomea	Ulmaceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Centella asiatica	Apiaceae	Herb	Tropics
Centranthera indica	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Cestrum nocturnum	Solanaceae	Sca.shrub	West Indies
Chasalia ophioxyloides	Rubiaceae	Shrub	South India, Sri Lanka
Chlorophytum orchidastrum	Liliaceae	Herb	India, Tropical Africa
Chrysophyllum roxburghii	Sapotaceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Cinnamomum macrocarpum	Lauraceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Cinnamomum zeylanicum	Lauraceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Cissus discolor	Vitaceae	Climber	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Cissus repens	Vitaceae	Climber	Indomalaysia, Nepal to Taiwan, Java
Cleidion javanicum	Euphorbiaceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Cleisostoma tenuifolium	Orchidaceae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats
Clerodendrum paniculatum	Verbenaceae	Shrub	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Clerodendrum serratum	Verbenaceae	Shrub	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka
Clerodendrum viscosum	Verbenaceae	Shrub	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Coldenia procumbens	Boraginaceae	Herb	Pantropical
Combretum latifolium	Combretaceae	Climber	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Commelina benghalensis	Commelinaceae	Herb	Paleotropics
Connarus wightii	Connaraceae	Sca.shrub	Oriental-W. Ghats
Corchorus trilocularis	Tiliaceae	Herb	Oriental-Tropical India
Costos speciosus	Costaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Cottonia peduncularis	Orchidaceae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Crotolaria filipes	Faboideae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats
Crotolaria pallida	Faboideae	Shrub	Oriental,Paleotropic, Neotropic
Species name	Family	Habit	Distribution
Crotolaria retusa	Faboideae	Shrub	Oriental,Paleotropic, Neotropic
Crotolaria verrucosa	Faboideae	Herb	Oriental,Paleotropic, Neotropic
Croton gibsonianus	Euphorbiaceae	Shrub	Oriental-W. Ghats
Curculigo orchioides	Liliaceae	Herb	India, Java
Curcuma neilgherrensis	Zingiberaceae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats
Cyathocline purpurea	Asteraceae	Herb	Oreintal-India, Myamnar
Cyathula prostrata	Amaranthaceae	Herb	Paleotropics
Cyclea peltata	Menispermaceae	Climber	Oriental-W. Ghats
Cymbidium aloifolium	Orchidaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia, Indochina
Cynoglossum zeylanicum	Boraginaceae	Herb	Oriental-South India, Sri Lanka
Cyrtococcum oxyphyllum	Poaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Dalbergia Sp.	Faboideae	Climber
Dalbergia sympathetica	Faboideae	Climber	Oriental-W. Ghats
Dendrobium macrostachyum	Orchidaceae	Herb	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka
Dendrobium nanum	Orchidaceae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats
Dendrobium ovatum	Orchidaceae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats
Derris canarensis	Faboideae	Climber	Oriental-W. Ghats
Desmodium laxiflorum	Faboideae	Shrub	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Desmodium triflorum	Faboideae	Herb	Tropics
Desmodium triquetrum	Faboideae	Shrub	Indomalaysia, China
Desmos lawii	Annonaceae	Straggler	Indomalaysia, China
Dichapetalum gelonioides	Dichapetalaceae	Shrub	Oriental-W. Ghats
Dictyospermum ovalifolium	Commelinaceae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats
Dillenia pentagyana	Dilleniaceae	Tree	Oriental- China to Indomalaysia
Dimocarpus longan	Sapindaceae	Tree	Oriental-Tropics
Dimorphocalyx beddomei	Euphorbiaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Dioscorea bulbifera	Dioscoreaceae	Climber	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka
Dioscorea oppositifolia	Dioscoreaceae	Climber	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka
Diospyros assimilis	Ebenaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Diospyros buxifolia	Ebenaceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Diospyros candolleana	Ebenaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Species name	Family	Habit	Distribution
Diospyros crumenata	Ebenaceae	Tree	Oriental-Western Karnataka, Sri Lanka
Diospyros melanoxylon	Ebenaceae	Tree	Oriental-Peninsular India,
Diospyros montana	Ebenaceae	Tree	Oriental to Tropical Australia
Diospyros nigrescens	Ebenaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Diospyros pruriens	Ebenaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Diospyros Sp.	Ebenaceae	Tree
Dipterocarpus indicus	Dipterocarpaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Dopatrium junceum	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Dracaena terniflora	Agavaceae	Herb	Oriental-India, S.E. Asia
Drosera burmanii	Droseraceae	Herb	West Africa to North east Africa
Drosera indica	Droseraceae	Herb	Tropical Africa to Australia
Duranta repens	Verbenaceae	Shrub	South America
Dysoxylum glandulosum	Meliaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Ecbolium ligustrinum	Acanthaceae	Shrub	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka
Eclipta alba	Asteraceae	Herb	Pantropical
Elaeagnus conferta	Elaeagnaceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Elaeocarpus serratus	Elaeocarpaceae	Tree	Oriental-India
Elaeocarpus tuberculatus	Elaeocarpaceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Elatostema cuneatum	Urticaceae	Herb	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka
Elatostema lineolatum	Urticaceae	Herb	Oriental-India
Elephantopus scaber	Asteraceae	Herb	Pantropical
Emblica officinalis	Euphorbiaceae	Tree	Palaeotropics
Emilia sonchifolia	Asteraceae	Herb	Pantropical
Entada pursaetha	Faboideae	Climber	Oriental-Western India,
Epaltes divaricata	Asteraceae	Herb	W Peninsular India, China, Myanmar
Epipogium roseum	Orchidaceae	Herb	W Africa, Indomalaysia
Epithema carnosum	Gesneriaceae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats
Eria dalzelli	Orchidaceae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats
Eriocaulon stellulatum	Eriocaulaceae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats
Eriocaulon xeranthemum	Eriocaulaceae	Herb	Tropical Africa, Oriental-India
Ervatamia heyneana	Apocynaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Species name	Family	Habit	Distribution
Euodia lunu-ankenda	Rutaceae	Tree	Oriental-India to S. E. Asia
Euonymus indicus	Celastraceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Eupatorium odoratum	Asteraceae	Herb	Neotropic
Euphorbia hirta	Euphorbiaceae	Herb	Pantropical
Euphorbia notoptera	Euphorbiaceae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats
Euphorbia thymifolia	Euphorbiaceae	Herb	Tropics
Evolvulus alsinoides	Convolvulaceae	Herb	Paleotropics
Evolvulus nummularius	Convolvulaceae	Herb	Tropical America
Exacum bicolor	Gentianaceae	Herb	Oriental-Peninsular India
Exacum carinatum	Gentianaceae	Herb	Oriental-Central India, W. Ghats
Exacum lawii	Gentianaceae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats, Sri Lanka?
Exacum pedunculatum	Gentianaceae	Herb	Oriental- India
Ficus arnottiana	Moraceae	Tree	Oriental-Deccan Peninsula, Sri Lanka
Ficus asperrima	Moraceae	Tree	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka
Ficus heterophylla	Moraceae	Tree	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka,
Ficus hispida	Moraceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Ficus nervosa	Moraceae	Tree	Oriental-India to Vietnam
Ficus Sp.	Moraceae	Tree
Fimbristylis camplanata	Cyperaceae	Herb	Pantropical
Flacourtia montana	Flacourtiaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Flemingia strobilifera	Faboideae	Shrub	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Garcinia gummi-gutta	Clusiaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Garcinia indica	Clusiaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Garcinia morella	Clusiaceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Garcinia talbotii	Clusiaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Geissaspis cristata	Faboideae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats
Geophila reniformis	Rubiaceae	Herb	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka
Globba marantina	Zingiberaceae	Herb	Oriental- India, Sri Lanka, Malaya
Glochidion sp.	Euphorbiaceae	Tree
Glochidion zeylanicum	Euphorbiaceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Gloriosa superba	Liliaceae	Climber	Paleotropics
Species name	Family	Habit	Distribution
Glycosmis pentaphylla	Rutaceae	Shrub	Oriental-S. India, Sri Lanka
Gnetum ula	Gnetaceae	Climber	Oriental-South India
Gnidia glauca	Thymelaeaceae	Shrub	Palaeotropics
Goniothalamus cardiopetalus	Annonaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Gordonia obtusa	Theaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Grangea maderaspatana	Asteraceae	Herb	Paleotropics
Grewia disperma	Tiliaceae	Tree	Paleotropics, Oriental-India, Myanmar
Grewia microcos	Tiliaceae	Tree	Oriental-Asia
Grewia tiliifolia	Tiliaceae	Tree	Tropical Africa, Tropical
Grewia umbellifera	Tiliaceae	Sca.shrub	Oriental-Central and Peninsular India
Grewilia robusta	Gymnosperm	Tree
Gymnema sylvestre	Asclepiadaceae	Climber	Paleotropics, Oriental
Gymnosporia rothiana	Celastraceae	Shrub	Oriental-W. Ghats
Gymnostachyum latifolium	Acanthaceae	Shrub	Oriental-W. Ghats
Habenaria crinifera	Orchidaceae	Herb	Oriental- W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Habenaria grandifloriformis	Orchidaceae	Herb	Oriental-Deccan, W Peninsular India
Habenaria longicorniculata	Orchidaceae	Herb	Oriental- W. Ghats
Harpullia imbricata	Sapindaceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Hedyotis caerulea	Rubiaceae	Herb	Oriental- South India
Hedyotis corymbosa	Rubiaceae	Herb
Hedyotis herbacea	Rubiaceae	Herb	Paleotropic
Hedyotis nitida	Rubiaceae	Herb	Oriental- W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Helicteres isora	Sterculiaceae	Shrub	Oriental- Indomalaysia
Heliotropium indicum	Boraginaceae	Herb	Pantropical
Heliotropium marifolium	Boraginaceae	Herb	Indomalaysia
Hemidesmus indicus	Asclepiadaceae	Climber	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka
Hibiscus furcatus	Malvaceae	Sca.shrub	Tropical Africa, Tropical Asia
Hippocratea indica	Hippocrataceae	Climber	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Holarrhena antidysenterica	Apocynaceae	Tree	Oriental-India, Malaya
Holigarna arnottiana	Anacardiaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Holigarna beddomii	Anacardiaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Species name	Family	Habit	Distribution
Holigarna ferruginea	Anacardiaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Holigarna grahamii	Anacardiaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Hopea parviflora	Dipterocarpaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Hopea wightiana	Dipterocarpaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Hoya ovalifolia	Asclepiadaceae	Herb	Oriental- Peninsular India, Sri Lanka
Hoya retusa	Asclepiadaceae	Herb	Oriental- W. Ghats
Hybanthus enneaspermus	Violaceae	Herb	Africa to Australia
Hydnocarpus laurifolia	Flacourtiaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Hydrocotyl javanica	Apiaceae	Herb	Tropical Africa-Indomalaysia
Hydrocotyl sibthorpioides	Apiaceae	Herb	Tropical Africa-Indomalaysia
Hygrophila auriculata	Acanthaceae	Herb	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka
Hypoxis aurea	Hypoxidaceae	Herb	Oriental-India, S.E. Asia
Hyptis suaveolens	Lamiaceae	Herb	Tropical America
Ichnocarpus frutescens	Apocynaceae	Climber	Indomalaysia, Australia
Impatiens balsamina	Balsaminaceae	Herb	Indomalaysia, China
Impatiens oppositifolia	Balsaminaceae	Herb	Oriental- W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Impatiens scapiflora	Balsaminaceae	Herb	Oriental- W. Ghats
Impatiens trichocarpa	Balsaminaceae	Herb	Oriental- W. Ghats
Iphigenia indica	Liliaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Ipomoea hederifolia	Convolvulaceae	Twiner	Tropical America
Ischaemum indicum	Poaceae	Herb	Oriental-South India
Ixora arborea	Rubiaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Ixora brachiata	Rubiaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Ixora coccinea	Rubiaceae	Shrub	Oriental-W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Ixora polyantha	Rubiaceae	Shrub	Oriental- W. Ghats
Jasminum malabaricum	Oleaceae	Climber	Oriental-W. Ghats
Jasminum ritchiei	Oleaceae	Climber	Oriental-W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Jasminum rottlerianum	Oleaceae	Climber	Oriental-W. Ghats
Jerdonia indica	Gesneriaceae	Herb	Oriental- W. Ghats
Justicia betonica	Acanthaceae	Herb	Tropical Africa, India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia
Justicia simplex	Acanthaceae	Herb	E Africa, India, Malaysia
Species name	Family	Habit	Distribution
Knema attenuata	Myristicaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Knoxia sumatrensis	Rubiaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Lagenandra meeboldii	Araceae	Herb	Oriental- W. Ghats
Lagerstroemia microcarapa	Lythraceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Lagerstroemia parviflora	Lythraceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats, Myanmar
Lannea coromandelica	Anacardiaceae	Tree	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka
Leea indica	Leeaceae	Shrub	Oriental- India, China to Australia
Lepisanthes tetraphylla	Sapindaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats, Sri Lanka, Myanmar
Leucas biflora	Lamiaceae	Herb	Oriental-W Peninsular India, Sri Lanka
Leucas ciliata	Lamiaceae	Herb	Oriental-India
Leucas hirta	Lamiaceae	Herb	Oriental-South India
Leucas lavandulifolia	Lamiaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Leucus marrubioides	Lamiaceae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Limnophila aromatica.	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	Tropical India, N Australia
Limnophila indica	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	Paleotropics
Lindernia anagallis	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Lindernia antipoda	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Lindernia ciliata	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Lindernia hyssopoides	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka
Lindernia nummulariifolia	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	Oriental-India, Myanmar
Lindernia procumbens	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	Temperate to tropical Eurasia
Lindernia pusilla	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	Paleotropics
Lindernia rotundifolia	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	Oriental-W and S. India, Sri Lanka, Madagascar
Linociera malabarica	Oleaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Litsea laevigata	Lauraceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Litsea sp.	Lauraceae	Tree
Lobelia alsinoides	Campanulaceae	Herb	Oriental-S and S.E. Asia
Lobelia nicotianifolia	Campanulaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Lophopetalum wightianum	Celastraceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Ludwigia perennis	Onagraceae	Herb	Indomalaysia, E Africa, Iran, Sri Lanka
Luvunga sarmentosa	Rutaceae	Shrub	Oriental-Java, Sri Lanka
Species name	Family	Habit	Distribution
Macaranga peltata	Euphorbiaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Madhuca latifolia	Sapotaceae	Tree	Oriental- India, Myanmar
Malaxis acuminata	Orchidaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Malaxis rheedii	Orchidaceae	Herb	India, Thailand, China
Mallotus philippensis	Euphorbiaceae	Tree	China, Indomalaysia to Australia
Mangifera indica	Anacardiaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Mastixia arborea	Cornaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Mecardonia procumbens	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	Neotropic
Melastoma malabathricum	Melastomataceae	Shrub	Oriental-India
Melochia corchorifolia	Sterculiaceae	Herb	Tropics
Memecylon sp.	Melastomataceae	Shrub
Memecylon talbotianum	Melastomataceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Memecylon terminale	Melastomataceae	Shrub	Oriental-W. Ghats
Memecylon umbellatum	Melastomataceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Memecylon wightii	Melastomataceae	Shrub	Oriental-W. Ghats
Menispermaceae member	Menispermaceae	Climber
Mesua ferrea	Clusiaceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Mimosa pudica	Faboideae	Herb	Tropical America
Mimusops elengi	Sapotaceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Mitraphora heyneana	Annonaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Mollugo pentaphylla	Molluginaceae	Herb	Paleotropics
Monochoria vaginalis	Pontederiaeae	Herb	Paleotropics
Moullava spicata	Faboideae	Sca.shrub	Oriental- W. Ghats
Murdannia pauciflora	Commelinaceae	Herb	Oriental-S. India, Malaya
Murdannia semiteres	Commelinaceae	Herb	Africa, S. India
Murdannia simplex	Commelinaceae	Herb	Paleotropics
Murraya koenigii	Rutaceae	Tree	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka
Murraya paniculata	Rutaceae	Shrub	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Mussaenda bellila	Rubiaceae	Sca.shrub	Oriental-Peninsular India
Myristica dactyloides	Myristicaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Myristica malabarica	Myristicaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Species name	Family	Habit	Distribution
Naravelia zeylanica	Ranunculaceae	Climber	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka, Java
Naregamia alata	Meliaceae	Herb	Oriental-India, Angola
Neanotis foetida	Rubiaceae	Herb	Oriental- W. Ghats
Neolitsea scrobiculata	Lauraceae	Tree	Oriental-Western India
Nothapodytes nimmoniana	Icacinaceae	Tree	Oriental-China, Indomalaysia
Nothopegia colebrookeana	Anacardiaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Nymphaea nouchali	Nymphaeaceae	Herb	Tropics
Nymphaea pubescens	Nymphaeaceae	Herb	Tropics
Nymphoides aurantiaca	Menyanthaceae	Herb	Oriental-S. India, Sri Lanka
Nymphoides indica	Menyanthaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Oberonia brunoniana	Orchidaceae	Herb	Oriental- W. Ghats
Oberonia santapaui	Orchidaceae	Herb	Oriental- W. Ghats
Olax wightiana	Olacaceae	Sca.shrub	Oriental- W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Olea dioica	Oleaceae	Tree	Oriental-N E India, S W India
Ophiorrhiza hirsutula	Rubiaceae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats
Osbeckia truncata	Melastomataceae	Herb	Oriental- W. Ghats
Oxalis corniculata	Oxalidaceae	Herb	Pantropical
Pajanelia longifolia	Bignoniaceae	Tree	Oriental-India, Myanmar
Palaquium ellipticum	Sapotaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Pandanus Sp.	Pandanaceae	Shrub
Paramignya monophylla	Rutaceae	Climber	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka
Paspalum scrobiculatum	Poaceae	Herb	Oriental- India
Passiflora subpeltata	Passifloraceae	Climber	Native of Madagascar
Pavetta indica	Rubiaceae	Shrub	Oriental-South India
Pennisetum pedicellatum	Poaceae	Herb	India, Tropical Africa
Peperomia pellucida	Piperaceae	Herb	S America
Peperomia portulacoides	Piperaceae	Herb	Madagascar to S W India
Peristylus aristatus	Orchidaceae	Herb	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka
Peristylus secundus	Orchidaceae	Herb	Oriental-S. India
Persea macarantha	Lauraceae	Tree	Oriental-South India, Sri Lanka
Phaulopsis imbricata	Acanthaceae	Herb	India, Africa, Sri Lanka, Madagascar
Species name	Family	Habit	Distribution
Phoebe cathia	Lauraceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats, C Himalayas to Myanmar
Phoenix humilis	Arecaceae	Palm	Oriental-W. Ghats
Pholidota pallida	Orchidaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Phyllanthus debilis	Euphorbiaceae	Herb	India, Tropical Africa
Phyllanthus niruri	Euphorbiaceae	Herb	Tropics except Australia
Phyllanthus urinaria	Euphorbiaceae	Herb	Tropics
Pinanga dicksonii	Arecaceae	Palm	Oriental-W. Ghats
Piper nigrum	Piperaceae	Climber	Oriental-E and W. Ghats
Plantanthera susannae	Orchidaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Plectranthus mollis	Lamiaceae	Herb	Oriental-India
Plectranthus stocksii	Lamiaceae	Herb	Oriental-Central and S. India
Plumbago zeylanica	Plumbaginaceae	Herb	Tropics
Poeciloneuron indicum	Clusiaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Polyalthia fragrance	Annonaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Polygonum chinense	Polygonaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Polystachya flavescens	Orchidaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Porpax jerdoniana	Orchidaceae	Herb	Oriental- W. Ghats
Porpax reticulata	Orchidaceae	Herb	Oriental- W. Ghats
Portulaca oleracea	Portulacaceae	Herb	Tropics
Pothos scandens	Araceae	Climber	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka,
Pouzolzia zeylanica	Urticaceae	Herb	China through Indomalaysia
Prunus ceylanica	Rosaceae	Tree	Oriental-South India to S.E. Asia
Psychotria canarensis	Rubiaceae	Shrub	Oriental-W. Ghats
Psychotria dalzellii	Rubiaceae	Shrub	Oriental-W. Ghats
Psychotria flavida	Rubiaceae	Shrub	Oriental-W. Ghats
Psychotria truncata	Rubiaceae	Shrub	Oriental-W. Ghats
Pterocarpus marsupium	Faboideae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Pterospermum acerifolium	Sterculiaceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Pterospermum diversifolium	Sterculiaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats, Java, Philippines, Malaysia
Ramphicarpa longiflora	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	Oriental- W. Ghats
Randia rugulosa	Rubiaceae	Sca.shrub	Oriental- W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Species name	Family	Habit	Distribution
Randia uliginosa	Rubiaceae	Shrub	Oriental-India, Myanmar
Rauvolfia serpentina	Apocynaceae	Shrub	India, Sri Lanka, Java
Rhynchoglossum notonianum	Gesneriaceae	Herb	Oriental- W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Rhynchospora wightiana	Cyperaceae	Herb	Oriental- W. Ghats
Rhynchostylis retusa	Orchidaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Rotala densiflora	Lythraceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Rotala macrandra	Lythraceae	Herb	Oriental-S. India
Rubia cordifolia	Rubiaceae	Climber	Palaeotropics
Rungia pectinata	Acanthaceae	Herb	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar
Sageraea laurifolia	Annonaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Salomonia ciliata	Polygalaceae	Herb	India, Sri Lanka, Malaya, Australia
Santalum album	Santalaceae	Tree	Oriental-South India
Saraca asoca	Faboideae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Sarcostigma kleinii	Euphorbiaceae	Climber	Oriental-Eastern & W. Ghats
Schefflera venulosa	Araliaceae	Tree	Oriental-India, Myanmar,
Schleichera oleosa	Sapindaceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Scoparia dulcis	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	Neotropic
Scutia myrtina	Rhamnaceae	Shrub	Oriental-Myanmar, India
Sebastania chamaela	Euphorbiaceae	Herb	Paleotropics
Sida acuta	Malvaceae	Herb	Pantropical
Sida cordifolia	Malvaceae	Herb	Pantropical
Sida rhombifolia	Malvaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Smilax zeylanica	Smilacaceae	Climber	Oriental-South E. Asia to
Smithia conferta	Faboideae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Smithia hirsuta	Faboideae	Herb	Oriental- W. Ghats
Solanum americanum	Solanaceae	Herb	Temperate and Tropical
Solanum surattense	Solanaceae	Herb	Indomalaya, Tropical Australia, Polynesia
Solanum violaceum	Solanaceae	Herb	Tropical Africa, Indian subcontinent
Sophubia delphinifolia	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	Oriental-S. India, Sri Lanka
Spermacoce articularis	Rubiaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Spermacoce mauritiana	Rubiaceae	Herb	Pantropical
Species name	Family	Habit	Distribution
Spermacoce pusilla	Rubiaceae	Herb	Paleotropics
Spermacoce verticillata	Rubiaceae	Herb	Pantropical
Stachytarpheta indica	Verbenaceae	Herb	Tropical America
Sterculia guttata	Sterculiaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Steriospermum personatum	Bignoniaceae	Tree	Oriental-India, Myanmar,
Striga angustifolia	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Striga asiatica	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	Paleotropics
Striga densiflora	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	Oriental-Central and S. India
Strobilanthus barbatus	Acanthaceae	Shrub	Oriental-W. Ghats
Strobilanthus heyneanus	Acanthaceae	Shrub	Oriental-W. Ghats
Strobilanthus integrifolius	Acanthaceae	Shrub	Oriental-W. Ghats
Strombosia ceylanica	Olacaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Strychnos dalzelli	Loganiaceae	Climber	Oriental-Peninsular India
Swertia corymbosa	Gentianaceae	Herb	Oriental- W. Ghats
Symplocos racemosa	Symplocaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Syzygium caryophyllatum	Myrtaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Syzygium cumini	Myrtaceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Syzygium gardnerii	Myrtaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Syzygium laetum	Myrtaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Syzygium macrocephala	Myrtaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Syzygium Sp.1	Myrtaceae	Tree
Syzygium Sp.2	Myrtaceae	Tree
Tarenna asiatica	Rubiaceae	Shrub	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Tephrosia pulcherrima	Faboideae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Terminalia alata	Combretaceae	Tree	Oriental-India
Terminalia bellirica	Combretaceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Terminalia chebula	Combretaceae	Tree	Oriental-India, Myanmar
Terminalia paniculata	Combretaceae	Tree	Oriental-Peninsular India
Tetrameles nudiflora	Datiscaceae	Tree	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka,
Thunbergia mysorensis	Acanthaceae	Climber	Oriental-W. Ghats
Toddalia asiatica	Rutaceae	Climber	Oriental-South India
Species name	Family	Habit	Distribution
Tolypanthus lagenifer	Loranthaceae	Shrub	Oriental- W. Ghats
Toona ciliata	Meliaceae	Tree	India to Australia
Torenia bicolor	Scrophulariaceae	Herb	Oriental- W. Ghats
Tragia hispida	Euphorbiaceae	Twiner	Oriental-Peninsular India
Trapa natans	Trapaceae	Herb	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka
Trewia nudiflora	Euphorbiaceae	Tree	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka
Tricalysia apiocarpa	Rubiaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Tricholepis glaberrima	Asteraceae	Herb	Oriental-India
Triumfetta rhomboidea	Tiliaceae	Herb	Tropical Africa, Asia
Turnera ulmifolia	Turneraceae	Herb
Turraea villosa	Meliaceae	Shrub	Western peninsular India, Java
Tylophora indica	Asclepidiaceae	Climber	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Unidentified (from Chikmattur)		Tree
Unidentified (from Karni)		Tree
Unidentified (from Mayyalli)		Tree
Unidentified (from Talgani)		Tree
Urena lobata	Malvaceae	Herb	Pantropical
Utricularia aurea	Lentibulariaceae	Herb	Oriental and Australian
Utricularia praeterita	Lentibulariaceae	Herb	Oriental-S. India
Utricularia reticulata	Lentibulariaceae	Herb	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka
Utricularia striatula	Lentibulariaceae	Herb	Paleotropics
Uvaria narum	Annonaceae	Climber	Oriental-W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
Vangueria spinosa	Rubiaceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Ventilago madraspatana	Rhamnaceae	Climber	Oriental-W. Ghats, Sri Lanka, Java
Vepris bilocularis	Rutaceae	Tree	Oriental-W. Ghats
Vernonia cineria	Asteraceae	Herb	Paleotropics
Vitaceae member	Vitaceae	Climber
Vitex altissima	Verbenaceae	Tree	Oriental- South India
Vitex negundo	Verbenaceae	Shrub	Oriental-Asia
Vitis auriculata	Vitaceae	Climber	Oriental- India
Wendlandia thyrsoidea	Rubiaceae	Tree	Oriental-S. India, Sri Lanka
Species name	Family	Habit	Distribution
Xantolis tomentosa	Sapotaceae	Tree	Oriental-India,China
Xylia xylocarpa	Faboideae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Xyris pauciflora	Xyridaceae	Herb	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Zanthoxylum ovalifolium	Rutaceae	Shrub	Oriental-Singapur
Zanthoxylum rhetsa	Rutaceae	Tree	Oriental-Indomalaysia
Zingiber cernum	Zingiberaceae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats
Zingiber neesanum	Zingiberaceae	Herb	Oriental-W. Ghats
Ziziphus oenoplia	Rhamnaceae	Sca.shrub	Pantropics
Ziziphus rugosa	Rhamnaceae	Straggler	Oriental-India, Sri Lanka
Zornia gibbosa	Faboideae	Herb	Tropics
Sca.shrub-Scandent Shrub

Table 8.4: Details of different landscape elements sampled and their diversity indices, basal area, percentage evergreens and percentage endemics.

Vegetation type	Total transects	Total quadrats	Total area sampled (ha.)	Total individuals	Total species	Estimated basal area/ha.	Species richness	Shannon’s diversity	Simpson’s diversity	% Evergreens	% Endemics
	20	96	11.8	1818	128	35.3	17	3.94	0.96	95.8	56.7
Semi-evergreen	16	82	3.3	1916	138	31.1	18	4.03	0.97	77.1	40.9
Moist deciduous	3	18	0.7	318	58	19.8	10	3.44	0.95	43.6	19.7
Scrub	2	5	0.2	6	4	0.6	2	1.24	0.67	0.0	0.0

Lichens

Lichens are unique groups of plants exhibiting symbiotic association of fungi and algae, but represented as a single organism. Because of their sensitivity to microclimatic changes in environment, lichens aid as bioindicators. They require specific conditions in the environment and respond critically to any changes in it. Hence, they are widely used in air pollution, geochemical and geothermal emission, and biomonitoring studies. They play various roles as pioneers in successionaland climax ecosystems and could as well indicate the age and ecological continuity of a forest. Apart from this, they also can be used as tools in determining the age of an unknown rock surface (lichenometry) and soil formation (pedogenesis) during plant succession. Western Ghats harbour 800 species of lichens in which, 161 species are endemic to this region. The study in SVWS shows the presence of 46 species of lichens in the SVWS (in semi-evergreen forest of Holebagilu, Honnemaradu Island, Karumane, Muppane and Siganduru) representing 5% from the Western Ghats of Karnataka. (Table 8.4). However, lichen studies need to be carried out more intensively. Table 8.5 gives Simpson’s and Shannon-Weiner’s diversity indices. Holebagilu and Karumane are highly diverse, while Honnemaradu (Island) is least diverse in lichen composition.

Table 8.4: Lichen species recorded in SVWS

Taxa	Growth form	Holebagilu	Siganduru	Muppane	Karumane	Honnemardu (I)	Substrata
Arthoniaceae
Cryptothecialunulata (Zahlbr.) Makhija & Patwardhan	C	+	+		+		16,27,33,41
C. phyctidiforme (Müll. Arg.) Awasthi & K Singh	C			+			1,4,47
C. stirtonii A.L. Smith	C	+				+	5,13,34
C.subnidulans Stirton	C					+	5,11,34,39,41
Arthopyreniaceae
Arthopyrenia indusiata Müll. Arg.	C	+					1,12,24,27,31,35,39,51
A. subnexa (Nyl.) Müll. Arg.	C	+					1,5,24,27,30
A. terminata (Nyl.) Müll. Arg.	C	+	+		+		4,8,14,27,
Bacidiaceae
Bacidia incongruens (Stirton) Zahlbr.	C				+		2,22,39
B. subletorum (Schreber) Lettau	C			+			36
Taxa	Growth form	Holebagilu	Siganduru	Muppane	Karumane	Honnemardu (I)	Substrata
Brigantiaea leucoxantha (Sprengel) Half. In Half & Bellem	C	+					15,25,48
Caliciales (Order)
Heterocyphelium leucompyx (Tuck.) Vainio	C	+					1,6
Catilariaceae
Catilaria pulverea (Borrer) Lattau	C					+	1,6,8,9,18,19,45,48
Coccocarpiaceae
Coccocarpia erythroxyli (Sprengel) Swinsc and Krog.	F		+		+	+	2,4,5,14,20,22,23,27,32, 37,39,40,41, 44,48,50
Collamataceae
Leptogium aurstro-americanum (Malme) Dodge	F		+		+		3,4,7,20,37,39,41,44,46, 47,50,
L. denticulatum Nyl.	F			+	+		2,3,10,41,42,44,50
Graphidaceae
Graphina petricosa (Krempelh) A. Zahlbr.	C				+		2,4,39,41
Graphis nakanishiana Patwardhan & Kulkarni	C			+		+	4,10,14,18,20,39,44,49
Taxa	Growth form	Holebagilu	Siganduru	Muppane	Karumane	Honnemardu (I)	Substrata
Xylographa vitiligo (Ach.) Laundon	C			+	+	+	2,4,10,14,16,20,27,28,30, 41,44
Lecanoraceae
Lecidia sp1	C	+					2,12
Lecidia sp2	C			+			2,4
Lecidia sp3	C				+		4,45
Lecidia sp4	C	+		+		+	2,13,16,27,34,45,46
Letrouitiaceae
Letrouitia trangressa (Malme) Half. & Bellem	C			+			2,4,36,48
Opegraphaceae
Opegrapha subvulgata Nyl.	C	+					6
Pertusariaceae
Ochrolechia androgyna (Hoffm.) Arnold	C		+				23
O. subviridis (Hoeg) Erichsen	C	+					6,27,40
Pertusaria albescens (Huds.) M. Choisy & Werner	C			+			2,42
P. multipunctata (Turner) Nyl.	C			+			2
Phyllosporaceae
Phyllospora  manipurensis (Müll. Arg.) Sch.	F	+		+			2,27
P. parvifolia (Pers.) Müll. Arg.	F	+	+	+			2,12,23,31,37,38,43
Taxa	Growth form	Holebagilu	Siganduru	Muppane	Karumane	Honnemardu (I)	Substrata
Physciaceae
Physcia aipolia (Ehrh. in Humb.) Furnr	F	+					13,31
P. dimidiata (Arn.) Nyl.	F		+				1,2,18,29
Pilocarpaceae
Byssoid sp1	C	+	+		+		1,2,4,12,14,20,21,25,27,32,38,39,41,50
Pyrenulaceae
Pyenula mamillana (Ach.) Trevisan	C	+	+				2,8,5,17,27
Pyrgillus sp.	C		+				41
Teloschistaceae
Caloplaca ferruginea (Huds.) Th. Fr.	C	+		+			2,10,13,15,27,39,44
Thelotremataceae
Ocellularia allosporoides (Nyl.) Patwardhan and Kulkarni	C		+				2,4,6,24,25,27,31,35,40,50,
O. groenhartii Hale	C	+					1,12,14,15,16,19,23,27,30, 36,38,39,40
Thelotrema leprocarpum (Nyl.) Tuck.	C		+	+		+	5,14,18,34,44,45,48
Trichotheliaceae
Porina interestes (Nyl.) Harm	C	+	+				1,8,27,31,44
P. internigrans (Nyl.) Müll. Arg.	C	+	+		+		2,4,13,15,30,39,41,44
Taxa	Growth form	Holebagilu	Siganduru	Muppane	Karumane	Honnemardu (I)	Substrata
P. subcutanea Ach.	C	+					17,27,38
P. subhibernica Upreti	C	+		+		+	4,5,6,10,11,12,13,16,17,20, 21, 23,24,26,27,29,31, 37,40,44,50,51,52
Trypthilliaceae
Trypthelium tropicum (Ach.) Müll. Arg.	C					+	11

Note: C – Crustose, F – Foliose

Substratum of the Lichen Species

No.	Substratum	No.	Substatum	No.	Substratum
1	Fallen twig	2	Unidentified tree	3	Rock
4	Aglaia elaegnoidea	5	Aporosa lindleyana	6	Artocarpus integrifolius
7	Artocarpus Sp.	8	Canarium strictum	9	Careya arborea
10	Cinnamomum Sp.	11	Diospyros condollena	12	Diospyros crumenata
13	Diospyros microphylla.	14	Diospyrus Sp.	15	Dysoxylun Sp.
16	Elaeagnus latifolia.	17	Elaeocarpus serratus	18	Ervatamia heyneana
19	Ficus asperrima.	20	Ficus Sp.	21	Garcinia morella
22	Garcinia talbotii	23	Holigarna arnottiana	24	Holigarna grahamii
25	Holigarna Sp.	26	Homalium zeylanicum	27	Hopea wightiana
28	Ixora brachiata.	29	Ixora parviflora	30	Ixora Sp.
31	Knema attenuata	32	Lagestroemia lanceolata	33	Linociera malabarica
34	Litsea laevigata	35	Mangifera indica	36	Memecylon terminale
37	Mimusops elengi	38	Myristica malabarica	39	Olea dioica
40	Polyalthia Sp.	41	Pterospermum reticulatum	42	Salle (Kannada name)
43	Strychnos nux-vomica	44	Syzygium Sp.	45	Terminalia arjuna
46	Terminalia chebula	47	Terminalia Sp.	48	Terminalia tomentosa
49	Toddalia asiatica	50	Ventalago maderaspatana	51	Vepris Sp.
52	Ziziphus jujuba

Table 8.5 Simpson’s (D) and Shannon-Weiner’s (H’) indices for the lichens of studied localities

Locality	D	H’
Honnemaradu (Island)	1.26	1.397
Muppane	1.21	1.548
Karumane	1.14	1.675
Holebagilu	1.11	1.969
Siganduru	1.08	1.502

RANGE OF WILDLIFE, STATUS, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT

Forest type and cover: The biotic facing and edaphic variations have played a dominant role in determining the nature of the forests growing in the sanctuary. This sanctuary consists of multitiered vegetation that belongs to tropical evergreen type to moist deciduous type with lower, middle, top canopies, under growth and climbers. There are few areas where human interference is very low. On the fringes of villages the forest area has been degraded due to human interference as well as cattle pressure.Two types of forests are mainly found in sanctuary are:

• Southern Tropical evergreen type: This type is seen in Nagavalli, Kannor Kote, part of Biligar and Kattinkar areas. The top canopy consists of Depterocarpus indicus, Calophyllum tomentosum, Machilus mecarantha,   Acrocarpus,   fraxinopolius,   Bischfia Javanica,   Syzigium Species,   Alstonia   scholaris,    Mangifera     indica.Second canopy consists of caryota   urens,    Aporasa   lindleyanaetc.
• Southern Tropical Semi-Evergreen type:This type of forest is seen in parts of Muppane, Attigodu Satate Forests. The important species found are, Lagertroemia lanceolata,Careya arborea,Emblica officinalis, Randia species, Syzygium species, Terminalia species, Vitex   altisima, Mangifera indica, Artocarpus species and Bamboos in patches.

 

Animals: There are several kinds of animals in the sanctuary including carnivores, herbivores, omnivores and aquatic animals. The following are the important wild animals found in the sanctuary.

• Carnivores:  Tiger (Panthera tigris), Panther (Normal and Black)   (Panthera pardus), Wild Dogs (Cuon alpines), Wild cats (Felis chaus), Malabar civets (Viverricule indica), Hyena           (Hyena hyena)
• Herbivores: Sambar (Cervus unicolor),Barking Deer (Muntiocus muntjack), Spotted Deer (Axis axis), Zusk Deer (Moschus moschiferus), Black naped hare (Lepus nigricolis), The gaur (Bision) (Bos gaurus), Mouse Deer (Tragulus meninna).
• Scvangers:Jackal (Canis aurus)
• Reptiles:  Land monitor lizard (Veranus grisens), Python (Python molurus), King Cobra (Naja naja), Tortoises (Geochelone elegars)
• Other Animals: Flying Squirrel (Refuta indica), Giant malabar squirrel (Benus hylopetus), Indian Porcupine (Hystrix indica), Common langur(Presbytis enstellus), Bonnet monkey (Macaca radiate), Lion tailed maeaque (Macaca slenus),Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), Wild bear (Sus scrofa).

Butterflies
The Western Ghats comprises 330 species belonging to 166 genera and five families. It includes the largest butterfly, the Southern Birdwing (Troides minos) with a wingspan of about 140-190mm to the smallest, the Grass Jewel (Freyeria trochylus) and Tiny Grass Blue (Zizula hylax) with wingspan only 15-22 mm and 16-24 mm respectively. Nymphalidae and Lycaenidae are the major families that contribute to the entire Western Ghats butterfly species diversity. SVWS comprises five butterfly families with 173 species (Table 9.3). The family composition and the conservation status of the butterflies in Western Ghats are cited in Table 9.4.

Most of the Swallotails (Family; Papilionidae) show habitat preferences and hence can be used as indicators of ecosystem health. For instance, Spot Sword tail is found only in the thick evergreen forest and its larval host plants are Thottea siliquosa,etc., are found in the core and buffer zone of the sanctuary. The swallowtails are also found puddling near the streams.

The Brush-footed butterflies of the family Nymphalidae are represented by 65 species in the sanctuary. They are well distributed in the sanctuary area and some are habitat specific in nature. The Map Butterfly, Blue Nawab and Malabar Tree Nymph are found only in the moist and shady places. Blue Nawab is an endangered species encountered in Banukuli locality. Indian Sunbeam is found in moist places within the sanctuary area. Family Hesperiidae, popularly known as the family of “Skippers” comprises of tiny butterflies found throughout the sanctuary. Spotted Small Flat is endemic species found only in few localities.

Table 9.3: Butterflies species in SVWS

Species	Common Name
Family: Papilionidae Papilionidae: Papilioninae: Troidini
Troides minos Cramer	Southern Birdwing (WG)
Pachliopta pandiyana Moore	Malabar Rose (WG)
Pachliopta aristolochiae Fabricius	Common Rose
Pachliopta hector L.,	Crimson Rose (PI&SL)*
Papilionidae: Papilioninae: Leptocircini
Graphium sarpedon L.,	Common Bluebottle
Graphium doson C&R Felder	Common Jay
Graphium agamemnon L.,	Tailed Jay
Graphium nomius Esper	Spot Sword Tail
Graphium antiphates Cramer	Fivebar Swordtail
Papilionidae: Papilioninae: Papilioninii
Papilio clytia L.,	Common Mime
Papilio demoleus L.,	Lime Butterfly
Papilio liomedon Moore	Malabar Banded Swallow Tail (WG)*
Papilio dravidarum Wood-Mason	Malabar Raven (WG)
Papilio helenus L.,	Red Helen
Papilio polytes L.,	Common Mormon
Papilio polymnestor Cramer	Blue Mormon (PI&SL)
Papilio paris L.,	Paris Peacock
Papilio buddha Westwood	Buddha Peacock
Papilio crino Fabricius	Common Banded Peacock
Family: Pieridae Pieridae: Coliadinae: Coliadini
Catopsilia pomona Fabricius	Common Emigrant
Catopsilia pyranthe L.,	Mottled Emigrant
Eurema brigitta Cramer	Small Grass Yellow
Eurema laeta Boisduval	Spotless Grass Yellow
Eurema hecabe L.,	Common Grass Yellow
Eurema blanda Boisduval	Three-spot Grass Yellow
Eurema andersoni	One spot Grass Yellow
Pieridae: Pierinae: Pierini
Delias eucharis Drury	Common Jezebel (PI & SL)
Leptosia nina Fabricius	Psyche
Pieris canidia L.,	Indian Cabbage White
Cepora nerissa Fabricius	Common Gull
Anaphaeis aurota Fabricius	Caper White or Pioneer
Appias indra Moore	Plain Puffin
Appias libythea Fabricius	Striped Albatross
Appias albina Boisduval	Common Albatross
Colotis etrida Boisduval	Small Orange Tip
Colotis eucharis Fabricius	Plain Orange Tip
Colotis danae Fabricius	Crimson Tip
Ixias marianne Cramer	White Orange Tip
Ixias pyrene L.,	Yellow Orange Tip
Pieridae: Pierinae: Euchlocini
Pareronia valeria Cramer	Common wanderer
Pareronia ceylanica C&R Felder	Dark Wanderer (PI&SL)
Hebomoea glaucippe L.,	Great Orange Tip
Family: Nymphalidae Nymphalidae: Satyrinae: Melanitini
Melanitis leda L.,	Common Evening Brown
Melanitis zitenius Herbst	Great Evening Brown
Melanitis phedima Stoll	Dark Evening Brown
Nymphalidae: Satyrinae: Elymniini
Elymnias hypermenstra L.,	Common Palmfly
Lethe europa	Bamboo Tree Brown
Lethe rohria	Common Tree Brown
Mycalesis anaxias Hewitson	White-bar Bushbrown
Mycalesis mineus L.,	Dark-brand Bushbrown
Mycalesis perseus Fabricius	Common Bushbrown
Mycalesis subditaMoore	Tamil Bushbrown
Mycalesis patniaMoore	Glad-eye Bushbrown (PI&SL)
Orsotrioena medus Fabricius	The Nigger
Zipoetis saitis	Tamil Catseye (WG)
Nymphalidae: Satyrinae: Satyrini
Ypthima asterope Klug	Common Three-ring
Ypthima hiiebneri Kirby	Common Four-ring
Ypthima baldus Fabricius	Common Five-ring
Ypthima sp.	Ring
Nymphalidae: Charaxinae: Charaxini
Polyura athamas Drury	Common Nawab
Polyura schreiber	Blue Nawab (PI&SL)*
Charaxes bernardus	Tawny Rajah
Charaxes dolon Fabricius	Black Rajah
Nymphalidae: Heliconiinae: Acraeini
Acraea violae Fabricius	Tawny Coster
Nymphalidae: Heliconiinae: Heliconiini
Cethosia nietneri C&R Felder	Tamil Lacewing (PI&SL)
Vindula erota Fabricius	Cruiser
Nymphalidae: Heliconiinae: Argynnini
Cupha erymanthis Drury	Rustic
Phalanta phalantha Drury	Common Leopard
Cirrochroa thais Fabricius	Tamil Yeoman (PI&SL)
Argyreus hyperbius L.,	Indian Fritillary
Nymphalidae: Aparturinae
Euripus consimilis	Painted Courtesan
Nymphalidae: Limenitinae: Neptini
Neptis jumbahMoore	Chestnut-streaked Sailer
Neptis hylasMoore	Common Sailer
Pantoporia hordonia Stoll	Common Lascar
Nymphalidae: Limenitinae: Limetini
Athyma perius L.,	Common Sergeant
Athyma nefte	Colour Sargeant
Athyma ranga Moore	Blackvein Sergeant
Limenitis procris Cramer	Commander
Nymphalidae: Limenitinae: Parthenini
Parthenos sylvia Cramer	Clipper
Nymphalidae: Limenitinae: Euthaliinii
Tanaecia lepidea Butler	Grey Count
Euthalia aconthea Cramer	Common Baron
Euthalia nais Forster	Red Baron or Baronet (PI&SL)
Dolpha evelina Stoll	Red-spot Duke
Nymphalidae: Limenitinae: Biblini
Byblia ilithyia	Joker
Ariadne merione Cramer	Common Castor
Ariadne ariadne L.,	Angled Castor
Nymphalidae: Limenitinae: Marpesiini
Cyrestis thyodamas	Map
Nymphalidae: Libytheinae
Libythea lepitaMoore	Common Beak
Nymphalidae: Nymphalinae: Nymphalini
Junonia hierta Fabricius	Yellow Pansy
Junonia orithya L.,	Blue Pansy
Junonia lemonias L.,	Lemon Pansy
Junonia almana L.,	Peacock Pansy
Junonia atlites L.,	Grey Pansy
Junonia iphita Cramer	Chocolate Pansy
Kaniska canace	Blue Admiral
Cynthia cardui L.,	Painted Lady
Hypolimnas bolina L.,	Great Eggfly
Hypolimnas misippus L.,	Danaid Eggfly (PI&SL)*
Doleschallia bisaltide	Autumn Leaf
Kallima horsfieldi Kollar	South Indian Blue Oak Leaf (WG)
Nymphalidae: Danainae: Danaini
Parantica aglea Stoll	Glassy Blue Tiger
Tirumala limniace Cramer	Blue Tiger
Tirumala septentrionisButler	Dark Blue Tiger
Danaus chrysippus L.,	Plain Tiger
Danaus genutia Cramer	Striped Tiger
Nymphalidae: Danainae: Euploeini
Euploea core Cramer	Common Indian Crow
Idea malabarica Moore	Malabar Tree Nymph (WG)
Family: Lycaenidae Lycaenidae: Riodininae: Riodinini
Abisara echerius Stoll	Plum Judy
Lycaenidae: Miletinae: Spalgini
Spalgis epius West Wood	Apefly
Lycaenidae: Polymmatinae: Polymmatini
Castalius rosimon Fabricius	Common Pierrot
Caleta caleta Hewitson	Angled Pierrot
Discolampa ethion Doubleday & Hewitson	Banded Blue Pierrot
Leptotes plinius Fabricius	Zebra Blue
Azanus ubaldus	Bright Babul Blue
Everes lacturnus Godart	Indian Cupid
Actolepis puspa Horsfield	Common Hedge Blue
Neopithecops zalmoraButler	Quaker
Pseudozizeeria maha Kollar	Pale Grass Blue
Zizeeria karsandraMoore	Dark Grass Blue
Zizina otis Fabricius	Lesser Grass Blue
Zizula hylax Fabricius	Tiny  Grass Blue
Chilades laius Stoll	Lime Blue
Freyeria trochylus Freyer	Grass Jewel
Lampides boeticus L.,	Pea Blue
Jamides bochus Cramer	Dark Cerulean
Jamides celeno Cramer	Common Cerulean
Jamides alecto Felder	Metallic Cerulean
Nacaduba pactolus	Large four line blue
Nacaduba hermus	Pale-4 line Blue
Prosotas nora C & R Felder	Common Lineblue
Prosotas dubiosa	Tailless Lineblue
Talicada nyseus Guerin-Meneville	Red Pierrot
Lycaenidae: Theclinae: Arhopalini
Arhopala amantes Hewitson	Large Oakblue
Thaduka multicaudata Moore	Many-tailed Oakblue
Lycaenidae: Theclinae: Amblypodiini
Iraota timoleon Stoll	Silverstreak Blue
Amblypodia anita Hewitson	Leaf Blue
Lycaenidae: Theclinae: Aphnaeini
Spindasis vulcanus Fabricius	Common Silverline
Lycaenidae: Theclinae: Loxurini
Loxura atymnus	Yamfly
Lycaenidae: Theclinae: Horagini
Rathinda amor	Monkey Puzzle
Lycaenidae: Theclinae: Hypolycaenini
Zeltus amasa	Fluffy tit
Lycaenidae: Theclinae: Deudorigini
Deudorix epijarbas	Cornelian
Deudorix isocrates	Common Guva Blue
Rapala manea Hewitson	Slate Flash
Rapala varuna Moore	Indigo Flash
Lycaenidae: Curetinae
Curetis thetis	Indian Sunbeam (PI&SL)
Family: Hesperiidae Hesperiidae: Coeliadinae
Bibasis sena Moore	Orange Tail Awl
Hasora chromus Cramer	Common Banded Awl
Hasora badra Moore	Common Awl
Badamia exclamationis Fabricius	Brown awl
Hesperiidae: Pyrginae
Celaenorrhinus leucocera Kollar	Common Spotted Flat
Celaenorrhinus ambareesa Moore	Malabar Spotted Flat
Tagiades japetus Cramer	Common Snow Flat
Tagiades litigiosa Moschler	Water Snow Flat
Tagiades gana Moore	Immaculate or Suffused Snow Flat
Pseudocoladenia dan Fabricius	Fulvous Pied Flat
Coladenia indrani Moore	Tricolor Pied Flat
Sarangesa dasahara Moore	Common Small Flat
Sarangesa purendra Moore	Spotted Small Flat (WG)
Odontoptilum angulatum C&R Felder	Chestnut or Banded Angle
Spialia galba Fabricius	Indian Grizzled Skipper
Hesperiidae: Hesperiinae
Ampittia dioscorides	Bush Hopper
Halpe porus	Moore's ace
Lambrix salsala Moore	Chestnut Bob
Notocrypta paralysos Wood-Mason & de Niceville	Common Banded Demon
Notocrypta curvifascia C & R Felder	Restricted Demon
Udaspes folus Cramer	Grass Demon
Suastus gremius Fabricius	Indian Palm Bob
Suastus sp.	Bob
Gangara thyrsis Fabricius	Giant Redeye
Taractrocera maevius Fabricius	Common Grass Dart
Talicota colon Fabricius	Pale Palm Dart
Borbo cinnara Wallace	Rice Swift
Pelopidas mathias	Small branded swift

Table 9.4:  Butterfly family composition in SVWS.

Family	India	Western Ghats	Inside the sanctuary
			Total species	Endangered	Western Ghats Endemics	Shared Endemics (Western Ghats and Sri Lanka)
Papilionidae	107	19	19	2	5	3
Pieridae	109	33	23			2
Nymphalidae	520	96	65	2	3	6
Lycaenidae	450	101	38			1
Hesperiidae	320	81	28		1

Molluscs

Molluscs are one of the most diverse groups of invertebrates - both in form and habitat. They have figured prominently in palaeobiological and biological studies, and have served as study organisms in numerous evolutionary, biomechanical, ecological, physiological, and behavioural studies. Many species of freshwater mussels and snails are threatened or endangered throughout the world. Twenty-one species belonging to 7 families were recorded from different localities. The list of species collected has been given in Table 9.5. The plight of freshwater mussels is a prime example of the decline of aquatic habitats and the species that inhabit them. If trends are not reversed and stream degradation and loss of habitat continues many of the interesting and beautiful molluscs will be lost forever.

Table 9.5:  Mollusc species in SVWS

Family	Genera/Species
Cyclophoridae	Alycaeus expatriatus
Cyclophoridae	Cyclophorus jerdoni
Cyclophoridae	Theobaldius Sp.
Cyclophoridae	Craspedoptris Sp.
Cyclophoridae	Cyathophoma Sp.
Diplommatinidae	Nicida liricincta
Diplommatinidae	Ophisthosoma deccanense
Ariophantidae	Ariophanta immerita
Ariophantidae	Ariophanta canarica
Ariophantidae	Ariophanta Sp.
Ariophantidae	Euplecta Sp.
Ariophantidae	Macrochalmys Sp.
Helixarionidae	Kaliella Sp.
Helixarionidae	Kaliella sigurensis
Streptaxidae	Streptaxis canarica
Subulinidae	Glessula Sp. a
Subulinidae	Glessula Sp. b
Subulinidae	Glessula Sp. c
Subulinidae	Glessula Sp. d
Subulinidae	Opeas Sp.
Vertiginidae	Pupisoma Sp.
Unidentified	Unidentified

Reptiles

157 species of reptiles including a crocodile Crocodulus palustris is known from the Western Ghats. Out of 157 species 97 are endemics and majority of them are snakes. Twenty-three species of reptiles were recorded in the present study (Table 10.1). Three endemic species, viz., skink, malabar pit viper and bamboo pit viper were also recorded. Tortoises are commonly found in the reservoir. Crocodile (Crocodulus palustris) was recorded from reservoir at Madenur and Muppane area during the study. Two juveniles were caught in the nets of the fishermen at Holebagilu. There was an instance of livestock death due to crocodile at Muppane. King cobra is found in shady places and in the riparian vegetation dominated by Ochlandra sp. Malabar pit viper is found in between the buttresses of the huge trees of species like, Ficus nervosa, Syzigium gardneri and on the medium height shrubs. Hump nosed pit viper is found concealing in the litter cover.  

Table 10.1: Reptiles of SVWS

Common Name	Scientific Name	IUCN Status
Crocodile	Crocodylus palustris	VU
Common Indian Monitor Lizard	Varnus bengalensis	VU
Flapshell turtles	Lissemys punctata	Lr-lc
Indian Chameleon	Chameleon zeylanicus	VU
House Gecko	Hemidactylus frenatus	Lr-lc
Gunther’s Supple Skink	*Lygosoma guentheri	Lr-nt
King Cobra	Ophiophagus hannah	Lr-nt
The Cobra	Naja naja	Lr-nt
The Krait	Bungarus caeruleus	Lr-nt
Russell’s Viper	Daboia russelli	Lr-nt
Hump-nosed Pit Viper	Hypnale hypnale	Lr-nt
Saw Scaled Viper	*Echis carinatus	Lr-nt
Malabar Pit Viper	*Trimersurus malabaricus	Lr-nt
Bronzebacked Tree Snake	Dendrelaphis tristis	Lr-lc
The Vine Snake	Ahaetulla nasuta	Lr-nt
Flying Snake	Chrysopelea ornata	Lr-nt
Trinket Snake	Elaphe helena helena	Lr-nt
Checkered Keelback	Xenochrophis piscator piscator	Lr-lc
Montane Keelback	*Amphiesma monticola	Lr-nt
Common Sand Boa	Eryx conicus conicus	Lr-nt
Shieldtail	*Uropeltis sp.
The Rat Snake	Ptyas mucosus	Lr-nt
Python	Python molurus	Lr-nt

Avifauna

Birds are a unique group of vertebrates and can indicate the quality of habitat or environment. In the ecosystem studies, birds play a pivotal role as predators of lower organisms and prey to higher vertebrates. The bird diversity of an area not only indicates its health but also stability. A total of 122 bird species were sighted in the sanctuary area during the study period (Table 10.2). Inside the sanctuary, few localities are very important in bird diversity like, Muppane, Kanur and Govardhanagiri state forest. Muppane nature camp is an important area for bird watching as it is surrounded by heterogenous habitats from Scrub jungle to Semi-evergreen forest and also reservoir. The presence of some of the endemic and endangered species like, Malabar Grey Hornbill, and Great Indian Hornbill found in these areas signifies the presence of primary forest remnants. During the study, a flock of great Indian hornbill with 14 individuals were found in the Govardhanagiri forest. Apart from that, in some of the islands, malabar grey and Malabar Pied Hornbill are encountered which in turn shows the presence of endemic tree species, like, Myristica malabarica, Knema attenuata. In some of the forest enclosures the presence of green pigeons, hornbills and parakeets signifies also the presence of their foraging plant species.

Table 10.2: Birds of SVWS

Family	Sub-family	Common name	Scientific name
Podicipitidae		Little grebe	Podiceps ruficollis (Pallas)
Phalacrocoracidae		Large cormorant	Phalacrocorax carbo L.,
		Little cormorant	Phalacrocorax niger Vieillot
		Darter	Anhinga rufa (Daudin)
Ardeidae		Night heron	Nycticorax nycticorax L.,
		Purple heron	Ardea purpurea L.,
		Grey heron	Ardea cinerea L.,
		Paddy bird	Ardeola grayii (Sykes)
		Cattle egret	Bubulcus ibis L.,
		Median egret	Egretta intermedia (Wagler)
		Little egret	Egretta garzetta L.,
Ciconiidae		White necked stork	Ciconia episcopus (Boddaert)
Threskiornithidae		White ibis	Threskiornis aethiopica (Latham)
Accipitridae		Pariah kite	Milvus migrans (Boddaert)
		Brahminy kite	Haliastur indus (Boddaert)
		Shikra	Accipiter badius (Gmelin)
		Tawny eagle	Aquila vindhiana Franklin
		Crested serpent eagle	Spilornis cheela (Latham)
		Indian griffon vulture	Gyps fulvus (Hablizl)
Phasianidae		Grey jungle fowl	Gallus sonneratii Temminck
		Red spurfowl	Galloperdix spadicea (Gmelin)
		Common pea fowl	Pavo cristatus L.,
Rallidae		White breasted waterhen	Amaurornis phoenicurus (Pennant)
Jacanidae		Bronzewinged jacana	Metopidius indicus Latham
Charadriidae	Charadriinae	Spotted sandpiper	Tringa glareola L.,
		Little ringed plover	Charadrius dubius Scopoli
		Redwattled lapwing	Vanellus indicus (Boddaert)
		Yellowwattled lapwing	Vanellus malabaricus (Boddaert)
Laridae		River tern	Sterna aurantia J.E.Gray
Columbidae		Orangebreasted green pigeon	Treron pompadora (Jerdon)
		Greyfronted green pigeon	Treron pompadora (Gmelin)
		Green imperial pigeon	Ducula aenea L.,
		Blue rock pigeon	Columba livia (Gmelin)
		Spotted dove	Streptopelia senegalensis (Scopoli)
		Emerald dove	Chalcophaps indica L.,
Psittacidae		Roseringed parakeet	Psittacula krameri (Scopoli)
		Blossomheaded parakeet	Psittacula cyanocephala (L.,)
		Lorikeet	Loriculus vernalis (Sparrman)
		Bluewinged parakeet	Psittacula columboides (Vigors)*
Cuculidae		Cuckoo	Cuculus canorus L.,
		Indian cuckoo	Cuculus micropterus Gould
		Koel	Eudynamys scolopacea L.,
		Sirkeer cuckoo	Taccocua leschenaultii Lesson
		Crow-pheasant	Centropus sinensis Stephens
Strigidae	Striginae	Forest eagle-owl	Bubo nipalensis Hodgson
Trogonidae		Southern trogon	Harpactes fasciatus (Pennant)
Alcedinidae		Small blue kingfisher	Alcedo atthis L.,
		Whitebreasted kingfisher	Halcyon smyrnensis L.,
		Small blue kingfisher	Alcedo atthis (L.,)
		Pied kingfisher	Ceryle rudis L.,
Meropidae		Chestnutheaded bee-eater	Merops leschenaulti (Vieillot)
		Small green bee-eater	Merops orientalis (Latham)
Upupidae		Hoopoe	Upupa epops L.,
Bucerotidae		Common grey hornbill	Tockus birostris (Scopoli)
		Malabar grey hornbill	Tockus griseus Latham
		Great pied hornbill	Buceros bicornis L., *
		Malabar pied hornbill	Anthracoceros malabaricus Boddaert *
Capitonidae		Crimson throated barbet	Megalaima rubricapilla Gmelin
		Small green barbet	Megalaima viridis Boddaert
		Large green barbet	Megalaima zeylanica Gmelin
Picidae		Indian goldenbacked threetoed woodpecker	Dinopium javanense (Ljungh)
		Great black woodpecker	Dryocopus javensis (Horsfield)
		Heartspotted woodpecker	Hemicircus canente L.,
		Great black woodpecker	Dryocopus javensis (Horsfield)
Alaudidae		Crested lark	Galerida cristata (L.,)
Hirundinidae		Swallow	Hirundo rustica  L.,
		Wiretailed swallow	Hirundo smithii Leach
Oriolidae		Golden oriole	Oriolus oriolus L.,
		Blackheaded oriole	Oriolus xanthornus L.,
Daniidae		Rufousbacked shrike	Lanius schach L.,
Dicruridae		Black drongo	Dicrurus adsimilis (Bechstein)
		Racket-tailed drongo	Dicrurus paradiseus L.,
Sturnidae		Brahminy myna	Sturnus pagodarum (Gmelin)
		Rosy pastor	Sturnus roseus L.,
		Indian myna	Acridotheres tristis L.,
		Jungle myna	Acridotheres fuscus (Wagler)
		Hill myna	Gracula religiosa L.,
		Bank myna	Acridotheres ginginianus (Latham)
Corvidae		House crow	Corvus splendens Vieillot
		Tree pie	Dendrocitta vagabunda (Latham)
Campephagidae		Scarlet minivet	Pericrocotus roseus (Forster)
Irenidae		Iora	Aegithina tiphia L.,
		Goldmantled chloropsis	Chloropsis cochinchinensis (Gmelin)
		Fairy bluebird	Irena puella (Latham)
Pycnonotidae		Redvented bulbul	Pycnonotus cafer L.,
		Rubythroated bulbul	Pycnonotus melanicterus gularis Gould
		Greyheaded bulbul	Pycnonotus priocephalus Jerdon
		Redwhiskered bulbul	Pycnonotus jocosus L.,
		Yellowbrowed bulbul	Hypsipetes indicus (Jerdon)
Muscicapidae	Timaliinae	Common babbler	Turdoides caudatus (Dumont)
		Rufous babbler	Turdoides subrufus (Jerdon)
		Blackheaded babbler	Rhopocichla atriceps
		Jungle babbler	Turdoides striatus (Dumont)
		Slatyheaded scimitar babbler	Pomatorhinus horsfieldii Sykes
	Muscicapinae	Paradise flycatcher	Terpsiphone paradisi L.,
		Redbreasted flycatcher	Muscicapa ruficauda Swainson
		Verditer flycatcher	Muscicapa thalassina Swainson
	Sylviinae	Indian greatreed warbler	Acrocephalus stentoreus (Hemprich & Ehrenberg)
	Turdinae	Magpie-robin	Copsychus saularis L.,
		Indian robin	Saxicoloides fulicata L.,
		Blue chat	Erithacus brunneus (Hodgson)
		Blue rock thrush	Monticola solitarius L.,
		Malabar whistling thrush	Myiophonus horsfieldii (Vigors)
		Orangeheaded ground thrush	Zoothera citrina (Latham)
Paridae	Parinae	Yellowcheeked tit	Parus xanthogenys Vigors
Sittidae	Sittinae	Velvetfronted nuthatch	Sitta frontalis Swainson
Motacillidae		Forest wagtail	Motacilla indica Gmelin
		Yellow wagtail	Motacilla flava L.,
		Yellowheaded wagtail	Motacilla citreola Pallas
		Grey wagtail	Motacilla cinerea Tunstall
		White wagtail	Motacilla alba L.,
		Large pied wagtail	Motacilla maderaspatensis
Dicaeidae		Thickbilled flowerpecker	Dicaeum agile (Tickell)
Nectariniidae		Purplerumped sunbird	Nectarinia zeylonica L.,
		Small sunbird	Nectarinia minima (Sykes)
		Purple sunbird	Nectarinia asiatica (Latham)
Zosteropidae		White-eye	Zosterops palpebrosus (Temminck)
Ploceidae	Passerinae	House sparrow	Passer domesticus L.,
	Ploceinae	Baya weaver bird	Ploceus philippinus L.,
	Estrildinae	Spotted munia	Lonchura punctulata L.,
		Blackheaded munia	Lonchura malacca L.,
		Whitebacked munia	Lonchura striata L.,

Mammals

Mammals are the group of animals that have reached a pinnacle during the evolution of life. In wildlife conservation, prioritisation is mainly given to mammals, because of their direct relevance to human beings. Their presence in the wild is an indication of the health of that habitat. The study area harbours many mammalian species as listed in Table 11. Of the 43 mammals recorded from the sanctuary, Tiger and Lion-tailed Macaque are endangered, and leopard is vulnerable. Table 11 also lists the bats (flying mammals) found in this region.  The endemic and endangered lion tailed macaque is sighted in the Karani area. Reports indicate their presence in Kogar, Gurta, Kodachadri and Sharavathi valley area. Now its population is on the decline due to the destruction and fragmentation of habitat and hunting for its skin and meat.

Tigers (Panthera tigris tigris) inhabit mostly in the evergreen and moist deciduous forests. According to forest department 7 leopard and 2 tigers were found in the sanctuary and its immediate surroundings (Figure 2.3). In the sanctuary area tiger was sighted near Shashichowka, Kogar, Karumane and Karani. Linganamakki catchment area has records of 4 leopards and 6 tigers.

Table 11: Mammals of SVWS

Common Name	Scientific Name	IUCN Status
Slow Loris	Loris tardigradus	Lr-nt
Bonnet Macaque	Macaca radiata	Lr-lc
Lion-tailed Macaque	*Macaca silenus	EN
Hanuman Langur	Semnopithecus entellus
Indian Jackal	Canis aureus	Lr-lc
Indian Fox	Vulpes bengalensis	Lr-nt
Wild Dog or Dhole	*Cuon alpinus	Lr-nt
Sloth Bear	Melursus ursinus	VU
Common Otter	Lutra lutra	NE
Jungle Cat	Felis chaus	Lr-nt
Fishing Cat	Felis viverrina	VU
Brown Palm Civet	*Paradoxurus jerdoni	VU
Small Indian Civet	Viverricula indica	Lr-nt
Common Indian Mongoose	Herpestes edwardsi	Lr-lc
Small Indian Mongoose	Herpestes auropunctatus
Three-striped Palm Squirrel	Funambulus palmarum	Lr-lc
Jungle striped Squirrel	*Funambulus tristriatus	Lr-nt
Indian Giant Squirrel	*Ratufa indica	VU
Common Giant Flying Squirrel	Petaurista petaurista	Lr-nt
Indian Porcupine	Hystrix indica	Lr-lc
Indian Pangolin	Manis crassicaudata	Lr-nt
Black-naped Hare	Lepus nigricollis	Lr-lc
Leopard	Panthera pardus	VU
Tiger	Panthera tigris	EN
Wild Boar	Sus scrofa cristatus	Lr-lc
Indian Spotted Chevrotain or Mouse Deer	Tragulus meminna	Lr-nt
Barking deer or The Muntjac	Muntiacus muntjak	Lr-lc
Spotted Deer or Chital	Axis axis	Lr-lc
Sambar	Cervus unicolor	Lr-lc
The Gaur or Indian Bison	Bos gaurus	VU
Fulvous fruit bat	Rousettus leschnaulti	Lr-lc
Black-bearded tomb bat	Taphozous melanopogon	Lr-nt
Pouch bearing bat	Saccolaimus saccolaimus	DD
Greater false vampire	Megaderma derma
Lesser false vampire	Megaderma spasma	DD
Blyth's horse-shoe bat	Rhinolophus lepidus	Lr-nt
Fulvous leaf-nosed bat	Hipposideros fulvus	Lr-nt
Kantor's leaf-nosed bat	Hipposideros Sp.
Schneider's leaf-nosed bat	Hipposideros speoris	Lr-nt
Kelaart's leaf-nosed bat	Hipposideros lankadiva	VU
Burmese whiskered bat	Myotis montivagus	DD
Least pipistrelle	Pipistrellus tenuis	Lr-lc
Kelaart's pipistrelle	Pipistrellus ceylonicus	Lr-lc

Wildlife census data in the Kogaru and Kargal range in 1997

Animals	Kogaru range	Kargal range
	Block counting	Line transect	Block counting
Gaur	52	65	61
Spotted deer	68	30	36
Sambar	13	18	13
Wild Boar	42	60	64
Urial	7	3	4
Dhole		9	17
Langur	122	40	57
Sloth Bear	4
Monkey	170	25	39
Red giant squirrel	64	14	7
Peacock	80	17	10
Indian Hare		6	3
Jungle fowl		10	16
Barking deer		5	3
Hornbill		6	2
Owl		2	2
Monitor lizard		4	4
Tiger		1
Leopard	4 (male – 3, female – 1)	1 (male –1)

Figure 2.3:  Tiger and leopard distribution in SVWS

Aquatic Ecosystem

Aquatic ecosystems contribute to a large proportion of the planet's biotic productivity as about 30% of the world's primary productivity comes from plants living in the ocean. These ecosystems also include riverbanks, wetlands located at lakeshores, the ocean shoreline, and any habitat where the soil or vegetation is submerged for some duration. These ecosystems have been subjected to various levels of stresses, due to unplanned developmental activities in the last century. Anthropogenic activities involving changes in land use ultimately affects the receiving water in that drainage. Activities include unplanned agricultural practices, unscientific usage of inorganic fertiliser, pesticides and herbicides applied to crops, silt washed away because of vegetation removal, or even due to atmospheric deposition, or disposal of solid and liquid wastes. The Linganamakki reservoir (in eastern part) and Talakalale reservoir (northern side) form a part of the lacustrine ecosystem in SVWS, while many first and second order streams of river Sharavathi and Venkatapura forms the lotic ecosystem in the sanctuary.

Phytoplankton

Phytoplankton are the microscopic suspended algae that occur in different forms such as unicellular, colonial or filamentous, which are mainly photosynthetic in nature. They are one of the most rapid detectors of environmental change and are regarded as the primary producers in aquatic food chain. The family, genus and species composition of phytoplankton is listed in Table 12.1. Species list is given in Table 12.2

Table 12.1: Familywise composition of phytoplankton.

Family composition	I-collection	II-collection	III -collection
Desmidials	50	51	48
Bacillariophyceae	12	25	22
Cyanophyceae	4	6	6
Chlorococcales	3	9	8
Dinophyceae	2	2	4
Chrysophyceae		1	4
Total no. of genera	44	64	61
Total no. of species	71	94	92

Qualitative dominance of the phytoplankton was in the order of Desmidials > Bacillariophyceae > Cyanophyceae >Chlorococcales > Dinophyceae in the first sampling. In this collection population of Desmidial member Staurastrum multispiniceps was highest (58,944/L) in Muppane of the reservoir. While, in the second sampling, qualitative dominance was in the order of Desmidials > Bacillariophyceae > Chlorococcales > Cyanophyceae > Dinophyceae >Chrysophyceae. Similarly in the third collection, it was in the order of Desmidials > Bacillariophyceae > Chlorococcales > Cyanophyceae > Dinophyceae = Chrysophyceae.  Table 12.3 reveals diversity and diversity indices calculated in various sampling localities.

Table 12.2: Phytoplankton species in SVWS

I. Muppane
Bacillariophyceae (Diatoms)	Collections
	I	II	III
Cymbella chandolensis Gandhi		+
Gyrosigma attenuatum (Kuetz.) Rabh.		+
Melosira islandica O. Muell v. helvetica O. Muell		+	+
M. granulata (Ehr.) Ralfs. v. mazzanensis Meister			+
Navicula pygmaea Kuetz. v. indica Skv	+
N.viridula Kuetz. V. capitata Mayer		+	+
Nitzschia philippinarum Hustedt	+
Pinnularia streptoraphe Cleve			+
Synedra ulna (Nitz.) Ehr. v. danica Kuetz. Grun.			+
Desmidials
Arthrodesmus curvatus Turn	+
A. psilosporus (Nodrdst. & Lofg.) De Toni Formae	+		+
Cosmarium contractum Kirchn		+	+
C. ordinatum (Borges) West & West var.borgei Scott Gronbl.	+
C. lundellii Delp var circulare (Reinch) Krieg	+
C. spinuliferum West & West			+
Desmidium baileyi (Ralfs) Nordst fa.longiprocessum	+
D. baileyi (Ralfs) Nordst fa. tetragonum Nordst		+
Euastrum gnathophorum West & West			+
Spondylosium planum (Wolle.) West & West	+
Staurastrum cerastes Scott.& Presc.	+
S. euprepes	+
S. freemanii West & West var.nudiceps Scott & Presc.	+	+	+
S. limneticum Schm. Var. burmense West & West	+	+	+
S. multispiniceps	+		+
S. peristephes		+	+
S. prionotum		+	+
S. sexangulare Lund var.productum Nordst	+
S. tauphorum West & West	+
S. thienemannii Krieg			+
S. tohopekaligense Wolle var. insigne West & West Formae	+		+
Triploceros gracile Bail fa. curvatum	+	+	+
T. gracile Bail fa. undulatum Scott & Presc.			+
Xanthedium hastiferum Turn. Var. javanicum (Nordst.) Turn. fa. Planum Turn
X. perissacanthum Scott. & Presc. Var. minus.	+	+
Chlorococcales
Ankistrodeimus falcatus (Corda) Ralfs	+		+
Cyanophyceae
Aphanocapsa rivularis (Carm) Rabenhorst			+
Chroococcus limneticus var.elegans G. M. Smith	+
Microcystis aeruginosa Kuetz, emend, Elenkin		+
Dinophyceae
Ceratium hirundinella (O.F. Muell) Dujardin	+
Chrysophyceae
Dinobryon sertularia Ehrberg.

 

II. Talakalale
Bacillariophyceae (Diatoms)	Collections
	I	II	III
Cymbella powaiana Gandhi			+
Gomphonema longiceps Ehr. v. subclavata Grun		+	+
Melosira islandica O. Muell v. helvetica O. Muell		+	+
Navicula cari Ehr.		+
N.viridula Kuetz. V. capitata Mayer		+
Pinnularia maharashtrensis			+
Synedra ulna (Nitz.) Ehr. v. danica Kuetz. Grun.		+
Desmidials
Arthodesmus psilosporus (Nodrdst. & Lofg.) De Toni Formae	+		+
Cosmarium contractum Kirchn		+	+
C. subturgidum (Turn.) Schm. Fa. minus Schm		+
Desmidium baileyi (Ralfs) Nordst	+
D. baileyi (Ralfs) Nordst fa. tetragonum Nordst		+
Euastrum gnathophorum West & West		+	+
Spondylosium planum (Wolle.) West & West	+
Staurastrum freemanii West & West var.nudiceps Scott & Presc.	+	+	+
S. limneticum Schm. Var. burmense West & West	+	+
S. longibrachiatum (Borge) Gutz.	+
S. multispiniceps.	+
S. peristephes	+	+	+
S. prionotum		+	+
S. sexangulare Lund var.productum Nordst	+
S. rosei Playf. var. stemmatum			+
S. thienemannii Krieg fa. triradiatum			+
Triploceros gracile Bail fa. curvatum		+
X. perissacanthum Scott. & Presc. Var. minus.	+
Chlorococcales
Ankistrodeimus falcatus (Corda) Ralfs			+
Eudorina elegans Ehrenberg	+
Scenedesmus acuminatus (Lag) Chodat			+
S. dimorphus (Turp.) Kuetzing		+
S. opoliensis var contacta Prescott			+
Cyanophyceae
Aphanocapsa rivularis (Carm) Rabenhorst		+
Chroococcus limneticus var.elegans G. M. Smith	+
Coelosphaerium dubium Grunow			+
Dinophyceae
Ceratium hirundinella (O.F. Muell) Dujardin	+	+	+

 

III. Reservoir centre
Bacillariophyceae (Diatoms)	Collections
	I	II	III
Cymbella ventricosa Kuetz.		+
Gomphonema lanceolatum Her		+
G. longiceps Ehr. v. subclavata Grun	+		+
Gyrosigma attenuatum (Kuetz.) Rabh.		+
Melosira islandica O. Muell v. helvetica O. Muell		+	+
Navicula cari Ehr.			+
N.viridula Kuetz. V. capitata Mayer		+	+
N. subdapaliformis Gandhi	+
Pinnularia lundii Hustedt			+
Desmidials
Arthodesmus psilosporus (Nodrdst. & Lofg.) De Toni Formae		+	+
Cosmarium contractum Kirchn		+
C. margaritatum (Lund) Roy & Biss var sublatum (Nordst.) Krieg		+
C. scabrum Turn		+
Desmidium baileyi (Ralfs) Nordst fa.longiprocessum	+
Euastrum ansatum Ehr. v. Triporum	+
E. gnathophorum West & West var.bulbosum		+	+
Pleurotaenium ehrenbergi (Breb.) De Bary v. undulatum Schaarschm			+
Spondylosium planum (Wolle.) West & West	+
Staurastrum cerates Lund var pulchrum Scott & Gronbl. fa		+
S. freemanii West & West var.nudiceps Scott & Presc.	+	+	+
S. limneticum Schm. Var. burmense West & West	+	+
S. longibrachiatum (Borge) Gutz.	+
S. multispiniceps	+
S. peristephes	+	+
S. prionotum		+	+
S. sexangulare Lund var.productum Nordst	+
S. thienemannii Krieg fa. triradiatum		+
X. perissacanthum Scott. & Presc. Var. minus.	+
Chlorococcales
Ankistrodeimus falcatus (Corda) Ralfs			+
Pediastrum simplex Meyen		+
Scenedesmus acuminatus (Lag) Chodat			+
Cyanophyceae
Chroococcus limneticus var.elegans G. M. Smith	+
C. turgidus (kuetz.) Naegeli		+
Microcystis aeruginosa Kuetz, emend, Elenkin		+	+
Dinophyceae
Ceratium hirundinella (O.F. Muell) Dujardin			+

 

IV. Yennehole
Bacillariophyceae (Diatoms)	Collections
	I	II	III
Eunotia praerupta Ehr.	+	+
Gomphonema gracile Ehr. v. intricatiforme Mayer	+
G.lanceolatum Her		+
Melosira islandica O. Muell v. helvetica O. Muell			+
M. granulata (Ehr.) Ralfs. v. mazzanensis Meister			+
Navicula cuspidata Kuetz.f.brevirostrata Gandhi	+
N. laeta A. Mayer	+
N. viridula Kuetz.	+
Nitzschia closterium W. Smith	+
N. obtusa W. Smith v. scalpelliformis Grun	+
Pinnularia gracioloides Hustedt			+
Synedra acus Kuetz.	+
Desmidials
Arthrodesmus constrictus G. M Smith var.longispinus Gronbl.		+	+
A.curvatus Turn.var.latus	+
Closterium ehrenbergii Menegh		+
C. porrectum Nordst	+
C. ralfsii Breb var.hybridrum Rab		+
Cosmarium askenasyi Schm.fa.latum Scott & Presc			+
C. contractum Kirchn		+
C. decoratum West & West			+
C. pseudoconnatum Nordst	+
C. punctulatum Breb.var.sub punctulatum (Nordst.) Borges	+
Desmidium baileyi (Ralfs) Nordst fa.longiprocessum		+
D. bengalicum Turn	+
D. quadratum Nordst		+
Euastrum gnathophorum West & West var.bulbosum		+
E. sinuosum Lenorm. var. parallelum Krieg	+
Gonatozygon aculeatum Hastings		+	+
Hyalotheca dissiliens (Smith) Breb. var. hains Wolle	+
Micrasterias foliacea Bail var. quadrinflata		+
M. mahabuleshwarensis Hobs.var.chauliodon	+
M. quadridentata (Nordst.) Gronbl.fa, indonesinsis			+
Staurastrum anceps Her.		+
S. anceps Ehr. v. hyalina Brun. et.Perag			+
S. freemanii West & West var.nudiceps Scott & Presc.	+		+
S. limneticum Schm. Var. burmense West & West	+		+
S. multispiniceps	+
S. peristephes		+
S. sebaldi Reinsch var.ornatum Nordst			+
S. tohopekaligense Wolle var. trifurcatum West & West	+
S. wildmanii Gutw.		+
Chlorococcales
Ankistrodeimus falcatus (Corda) Ralfs	+		+
A. spiralis (Turner) Lemmermann	+
Gomphosphaeria aponina var. delicatula virieux		+
Kirchnerilla lunaris (Krich.) Moebius	+
Muogeotia punctata Wittrock		+
Pediastrum simplex Meyen			+
Scenedesmus bijuga (Turp.) Lagerheim		+
Cyanophyceae
Microcystis aeruginosa Kuetz, emend, Elenkin	+	+	+
Gomphosphaeria aponina var. cordiformis Wolle			+
Dinophyceae
Ceratium hirundinella (O.F. Muell) Dujardin			+
Chrysophyceae
Dinobryon calciformis Bachmann			+
D. divergens Imhof		+
D. sertularia Ehrbg.			+

 

V. Madenur
Bacillariophyceae (Diatoms)	Collections
	I	II	III
Cymbella laevis Naeg		+
C. ventricosa Kuetz.		+
Gomphonema lanceolatum Her		+
G. longiceps Ehr. v. subclavata Grun		+	+
Gyrosigma attenuatum (Kuetz.) Rabh.(Nordst & Lofg.) De Toni		+
Melosira granulata (Ehr.) Ralfs. v. mazzanensis Meister			+
M. islandica O. Muell v. helvetica O. Muell		+	+
Navicula viridula Kuetz. V. capitata Mayer		+	+
Nitzschia obtusa W. Smith v. scalpelliformis Grun		+
N. radiosa Kuetz.		+
Desmidials
Arthodesmus psilosporus (Nodrdst. & Lofg.) De Toni Formae		+	+
Cosmarium contractum Kirchn			+
Desmidium bengalicum Turn fa.quadratum		+
Euastrum gnathophorum West & West var.bulbosum		+	+
Onychonema laeve Nordst. var. latum West & West			+
Staurastrum cerates Lund var pulchrum Scott & Gronbl. fa		+
S. emaciatum		+
S. freemanii West & West var.nudiceps Scott & Presc.		+	+
S. gralile Ralfs fa. Kriegeri			+
S. limneticum Schm. Var. burmense West & West		+	+
S. multispiniceps		+
S. prionotum		+	+
S. tohopekaligense Wolle var. insigne West & West Formae		+
S. sebaldi Reinsch var.ventriverrucosum			+
Triploceros gracile Bail fa. undulatum Scott & Presc.			+
Xanthedium perissacanthum Scott. & Presc. Var. minus.		+
Chlorococcales
Muogeotia punctata Wittrock		+
Spirogyra rhizobrachialis Jao		+	+
Cyanophyceae
Chroococcus turgidus (kuetz.) Naegeli		+
Gomphosphaeria lacustris Chodat			+
Microcystis aeruginosa Kuetz, emend, Elenkin		+
Dinophyceae
Ceratium hirundinella (O.F. Muell) Dujardin			+
Chrysophyceae
Dinobryon calciformis Brachmann			+

Table 12.3:  Diversity indices at various sampling localities.

Parameter	Collection	Muppane	Talakalale	Reservoir Centre	Yenne holé	Madenur
Total individual	1	10339	2770	3414	820	-
	2	49	96	33	437	74
	3	232	59	88	585	175
Total species	1	21	13	14	23	-
	2	15	18	18	19	24
	3	21	17	15	20	19
Species richness	1	2.16	1.51	1.59	3.27	-
	2	3.59	3.72	4.86	2.96	5.34
	3	3.67	3.92	3.12	2.98	3.48
Shannon-diversity	1	1.96	1.85	2.24	2.69	-
	2	2.43	2.11	2.75	1.97	2.85
	3	1.57	2.45	2.21	1.57	2.21
Simpson-dominance	1	0.2	0.22	0.12	0.09	-
	2	0.11	0.23	0.07	0.24	0.07
	3	0.4	0.12	0.14	0.38	0.15
Simpson-diversity	1	0.79	0.77	0.87	0.9	-
	2	0.88	0.76	0.92	0.75	0.92
	3	0.59	0.87	0.85	0.61	0.84

Abrupt variations in total number of individuals indicate that the growth and distribution patterns of phytoplankton are not uniform. High total number of individuals during I-collection compared to other two can be attributed to the rains during the month of September just prior to I-collection during October, which might have added nutrients to the waters along with run-off water from the catchment.

In order to apply biological means of determining the trophic status, Shannon and Weiner’s species diversity values were calculated. The degrees of pollution is categorized based on the ranges of Shannon and Wiener’s species diversity as ‘slight’ (species diversity range of 3.0 – 4.5), ‘light’ (2.0 – 3.0), ‘moderate’ (1.0 – 2.0) and ‘heavy’ (0.0 – 1.0).

From Table 12.3  it is clear that in general, species diversity values are in the range of moderate or light pollution level. From Shannon’s diversity indices it is clear that the waters of sanctuary area are of oligotrophic nature.

A total of 109 species are collected from the SVWS; 28 species of diatoms, 58 species of desmidials, 12 species of chlorococales, 7 species of cynophyceae, 3 species of chrysophyceae and a species of dinophyceae represent total number. The biological examination of the stream and reservoir ecosystems showed a rich and diverse phytoplankton population. Desmids predominated in reservoir waters while diatoms in streams.

Zooplankton

Zooplankton are the primary consumers of an aquatic ecosystem, which feed on phytoplankton. Rotifera, Cladocera and Copepoda are the major groups among freshwater zooplankton. A detailed knowledge about zooplankton composition and their seasonal fluctuations is essential for proper management of water bodies. To study the zooplankton diversity in aquatic systems of the SVWS water samples were collected at Muppane, Talakalale, Reservoir center and Yenneholé. Majority of rotifers inhabits freshwater but some genera also occur in brackish water and marine environment. Most species are free-living while some are epizoic or parasitic. Generally the size of the rotifera range from 400 µm to 0.2 mm. Six species belonging to two families are recorded in the present study. Number of species belonging to rotifers, cladocerons and copepoda are given in Table 12.4.

Table 12.4: Zooplankton of SVWS

Groups	Family	Muppane	Talakalale	Reservoir Centre	Yenneholé
Rotifera	Brachionidae	1	0	1	1
	Lecanidae	1	2	1	3
Cladocera	Sididae	1	0	0	0
	Daphnidae	1	1	0	0
	Moinidae	1	0	1	0
	Macrothricidae	0	0	0	1
	Chydoridae	1	0	0	1
Copepoda	Cyclopidae	0	0	0	1
	Diaptomidae	1	1	1	0

Cladocerans are ubiquitous in distribution, i.e., they are found in the Arctic to Antarctic, in temperate and tropical latitudes. Recently they were also reported from ground water (Dumont, 1987; Negrea 1983). The size ranges from 0.2 mm to 18 mm. Like other Zooplankton cladocerans are excellent food for zooplanktivorous fish. Six species belonging to five families are recorded in the present study (Table 12.4).  Copepods are the very ancient arthropods. In inland waters copepods are well known, up to family level, but numerous species are yet to be discovered. Of the three groups of zooplankton, Copepoda was least represented in terms of diversity with only three species (Table 12.4).

In the present study, 15 species of zooplankton were recorded from four localities along the River Sharavathi, showing a typical tropical assemblage. Table 12.5 lists locality-wise species list. Large zooplankton species were absent in this river system, probably due to high predatory pressure.

Table 12.5: Zooplankton diversity in SVWS

Rotifers
Species	Sites
	1	2	3	4
Family: Brachionidae
Brachionus quadridentatus Hemann, 1783			+
B. falcatus (Zacharias, 1898)	+
Keratella tropica (Apsein, 1907)				+
Family: Lecanidae
Lecane bulla (gosse, 1888).	+	+	+	+
L. lateralis sharma, 1978.				+
Lecane sp.		+		+

Cladocerans
Species	Sites
	1	2	3	4
Family:Sididae
Diaphanosoma sarsi Richard, 1895	+
Family: Daphniidae
Ceriodaphnia cornuta Sars, 1885	+	+
Family: Moinidae
Moina micrura Kurz, 1874	+		+
Family: Macrothricidae
M. odiosa (Gurney, 1907)				+
Family: Chydoridae, Sub-family: Chydorinae
Ephimeroporus barrosi (Richard, 1894)	+
Sub-family: Aloninae
Alona verrucosa (Sars, 1901)				+

Copepodans
Species	Sites
	1	2	3	4
Family: CyclopidaeSub-family: Cyclopinae
Microcyclops varicans Sars, 1863				+
Family: Diaptomidae
Heliodiptomus cinctus (Gurney, 1907)			+
Allodiaptomus mirabilipes (Kiefer, 1936)	+	+

Ichthyofauna

The Western Ghats records 288 species belonging to 12 orders, 41 families and 109 genera, of which 118 species are endemic and 51 are unique. This diverse fish fauna composition aptly demonstrates the hotspots status of the Western Ghats. A major portion of the Linganamakki reservoir falls under the SVWS. The ichthyological studies gain importance, as it helps to adopt appropriate conservation strategies for sustainable management of the aquatic ecosystem. Several rivers in the Western Ghats are being exploited for fisheries and there is hardly any information available on its effect on such a pristine resource stock of the region. This necessitates a detailed investigation on fish and fisheries.

We have recored from SVWS 60 species of fishes (Table 13.1). Considering the IUCN status of these species, there are about 16.6% (10 species) endangered, 18.3% (11 species) vulnerable, 16.6% (10 species) data deficient, 33.2% (20 species) are with lower risk and the status of 3 species is unknown. There is about 16 endemic fish species in the reservoir. Compared to the Western Ghats this value is relatively low, which could be attributed to the formation of the reservoir that has lead to the flourishing of generalist species and diminishing of sensitive endemic species. Also, the introduction of the exotic species into the reservoir has increased the species richness while decreasing the endemism. About 16.6% (10 species) are restricted to peninsular India and 41.6% (25 species) have their distribution all over India.

Table 13.1: Fish species in SVWS

Family	Species	Distribution	IUCN status
Bagridae	Batasio sharavatiensis	Endemic to Sharavathi	DD
Bagridae	Mystus malabaricus	Endemic to Western Ghats	EN
Balitoridae	Nemacheilus anguilla	Endemic to Western Ghats	LR
Balitoridae	Schistura semiarmatus	Endemic to Western Ghats	VU
Cyprinidae	Barilius bakeri	Endemic to Western Ghats	VU
Cyprinidae	Barilius canarensis	Endemic to Western Ghats	DD
Cyprinidae	Barilius gatensis	Endemic to Western Ghats	DD
Cyprinidae	Garra gotyla stenorhynchus	Endemic to Western Ghats	EN
Cyprinidae	Gonoproktopterus dubius?	Endemic to Western Ghats	EN
Cyprinidae	Gonoproktopterus kolus	Endemic to Western Ghats	EN
Cyprinidae	Labeo kontius	Endemic to Western Ghats	LR
Cyprinidae	Osteocheilichthys nashii	Endemic to Western Ghats	VU
Cyprinidae	Puntius arulius	Endemic to Western Ghats	EN
Cyprinidae	Puntius sahyadriensis	Endemic to Western Ghats	DD
Cyprinidae	Salmostoma boopis	Endemic to Western Ghats	LR
Sisoridae	Glyptothorax lonah	Endemic to Western Ghats	LR
Cichlidae	Oreochromis mossambica	Exotic
Bagridae	Mystus bleekeri	India	VU
Bagridae	Mystus cavesius	India	LR
Balitoridae	Acanthocobitis botia	India	LR
Belonidae	Xenentodon cancilla	India	LR
Chandidae	Chanda nama	India	VU
Chandidae	Parambassis ranga	India	DD
Channidae	Channa marulius	India	LR
Channidae	Channa orientalis	India	VU
Claridae	Clarias batrachus	India	VU
Cyprinidae	Amblypharyngodon mola	India	LR
Cyprinidae	Barilius bendelisis	India	LR
Cyprinidae	Oreichthys cosuatis	India	DD
Cyprinidae	Puntius chola	India	VU
Cyprinidae	Puntius sophore	India	LR
Cyprinidae	Puntius ticto	India	LR
Cyprinidae	Rasbora daniconius	India	LR
Cyprinidae	Tor mussullah	India	EN
Gobidae	Glossogobius giuris	India	LR
Mastacembelidae	Mastacembelus armatus	India	LR
Schilbeidae	Pseudeutropius atherinoides	India	EN
Siluridae	Ompok bimaculatus	India	EN
Siluridae	Ompok pabo?	India	DD
Siluridae	Wallago attu	India	EN
Cyprinidae	Brachydanio rerio	India	LR
Claridae	Clarias dussumieri	India	VU
Aplocheilidae	Aplocheilus lineatus	Southern India	LR
Bagridae	Mystus keletius	Southern India	DD
Balitoridae	Schistura denisonii densisonii	Southern India	VU
Belontidae	Pseudophromenus cupanus	Southern India	DD
Cobitinae	Lepidocephalus thermalis	Southern India	LR
Cyprinidae	Cirrhinus fulungee	Southern India	LR
Cyprinidae	Danio aequipinnatus	Southern India	LR
Cyprinidae	Puntius fasciatus	Southern India	EN
Cyprinidae	Puntius filamentosus	Southern India	DD
Cyprinidae	Tor khudree	Southern India	VU
Balitoridae	Schistura sp.
Balitoridae	Schistura sp.
Cyprinidae	Catla catla	introduced
Cyprinidae	Cirhinus mrigala	introduced
Cyprinidae	Cyprinus carpio communis	Exotic
Cyprinidae	Cyprinus carpio	Exotic
Cyprinidae	Cyprinus carpio specularis	Exotic
Cyprinidae	Labeo rohita	introduced

Large-scale fishery began in this reservoir with the commissioning of the dam. This commercialisation of inland fishery that took place over a few decades has led to transformation of the subsistence fishing into commercial fishing in the wildlife sanctuary area of the Linganamakki reservoir. The introduction of exotic and alien species in to the Linganamakki reservoir has been practiced since 1965. Fingerlings of Catla catla, Labeo rohita, Cirhina mrigala, Cyprinus carpio and Oreochromis mossambica are introduced haphazardly into the reservoir on yearly basis.

The commercial fish catch of the reservoir is dominated by species belonging to Cyprinidae (54%). The other major families are Bagridae (23%) and the Siluridae (15%). When biomass is considered, the fast growing Indo-gangetic carps, popularly known as Indian major carps, occupy a prominent place namely Catla catla (21%), Labeo rohita (8.4%) and Cirhina mrigala (6.32%). These fishes are introduced to fulfill the commercial fish requirement along with the exotic species (Cyprinus carpio 21%). The native fishes with significant biomass are Gonoproktopterus kolus (11.5%), Ompok bimaculatus (10%) and Wallago attu (9%).

Data on fish catch of the selected five localities (Table 13.2) show that at the center of the reservoir (Holebagilu), the yield variation is very high compared to other regions. During monsoon season, the central region yields the introduced species in bulk. In the peripheral localities (Muppane, Konjavalli, Melmanji and Kogar) variation in catch during two seasons is less.

Table 13.2: Fish-catch observed at different locations during the year 2003-04

Locality	Catch per unit effort (Kg/boat/day)
	Non-monsoon	Monsoon
Holebagilu	1.34	39.4
Muppane	7.93	16.5
Konjavalli	6.2	16.5
Melmanji	6.8	24.2
Kogar	8.2	28.5

The fish biomass composition (Table 13.3) in the central region is dominated by introduced species (Holebagilu - 55.8%) during monsoon season. Among the indigenous population, Ompok bimaculatus has shown significant biomass in these localities. Whereas in other localities without any introduced species, their catch includes indigenous commercial fishes like Gonoproktopterus kolus, Wallago attu, Mastacembelus armatus and Ompok bimaculatus. Apart from G. kolus, the market value for all indigenous fishes is higher than the introduced species.

Table 13.3: Percentage catch composition of various species during monsoon season

Species name	Percentage biomass
	Holebagilu	Muppane	Konjavalli	Melmanji	Kogar
Catla catla	25.4	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
Cyprinus carpio	12.7	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
Labeo rohita	10.1	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
Cirhina mrigala	7.6	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
Cirhinus fulungee	0.0	12.7	5.4	2.5	3.2
Gonoproktopterus kolus	0.0	39.0	43.4	38.9	43.2
Mastacembelus armatus	8.1	9.7	12.1	4.9	8.4
Mystus bleekeri	0.0	0.3	0.0	0.0	0.0
Mystus cavacius	9.1	7.2	1.4	0.6	0.5
Mystus malabaricus	1.7	2.7	1.4	0.6	2.1
Ompok bimaculatus	24.0	23.9	15.9	8.1	37.1
Ompok pabo	0.0	1.3	2.6	0.9	1.5
Osteocheilichthys nashii	0.0	0.9	0.0	0.0	0.0
Pseudeutropius atherinoides	0.0	0.2	0.3	0.1	0.2
Puntius filamentosus	0.0	1.1	1.4	1.5	3.8
Tor khudree	0.0	0.9	0.0	0.0	0.0
Tor mussullah	0.0	0.0	0.9	0.6	0.0
Wallago attu	0.0	0.0	15.1	41.2	0.0
Xenentodon cancilla	1.2	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0

During summer season, catch is mainly represented by Mystus cavecius, M. malabaricus and Mastacembelus armatus in almost all the localities (Table 13.4). This shows the absence of any introduced species in these localities. At the peripheral localities Gonoproktopterus kolus shows significant catch whereas its catch is negligible at the central region.

Table 13.4:  Percentage catch composition of various species during non-monsoon season

Species name	Percentage biomass
	Holebagilu	Muppane	Konjavalli	Melmanji	Kogar
Native
Gonoproktopterus kolus	0.0	28.4	28.9	13.3	11.0
Cirhina fulungee	5.6	8.5	8.4	2.2	4.6
Garra gotyla stenorhynchus	0.0	1.5	0.6	0.0	0.0
Mastacembelus armatus	0.0	25.2	19.3	17.8	19.5
Mystus cavecius	16.8	3.8	6.0	8.9	14.6
Mystus malabaricus	22.4	5.7	7.2	7.8	10.1
Ompok bimaculatus	32.8	8.3	14.1	39.1	29.5
Ompok pabo	0.0	13.9	10.6	9.8	10.7
Oreochromis mossambica	0.0	1.0	2.4	1.1	0.0
Puntius arulius	0.1	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
Puntius filamentosus	17.9	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0
Tor khudree	0.0	3.8	2.4	0.0	0.0
Xenentodon cancilla	4.5	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.0

The fish catch composition shows variations between different sites as the composition in the peripheral regions of the sanctuary like Holebagilu is of introduced species while Yenneholé tributary is of native species.

Fishery in the sanctuary is being practiced illegally and continued overharvesting proves to be unsustainable. Yenneholé tributary has witnessed a self-preserving fishery within the biological limits of its resource’s productivity, through a limited seasonal uptake, while ensuring future harvests. On the other hand, Holebagilu region, which supplies the fish requirements of the nearby urban centers has large number of fishermen and wider access and has led to illegal fishing activities.

The fortunes of the fishermen at the central parts of the reservoir like Holebagilu and the Hasaramakki seem to have touched bottom during recent years. During the winter and the summer seasons, the catch kg/per person/day is around one, which fetches about 25 rupees. During monsoon season, they get the introduced species. The competition for food and space between the exotic and indigenous has also led to the decline in the latter.

Variable fishing pressure: Monsoon is the peak fishing period with 3.4 times fish catch per person per day compared to non-monsoon period and accounts for 86.7% of the total fish-catch. Increased fishing pressure is noticed with migratory fishermen (accounting to 63% of the total) from various parts of peninsular India and the density of fishermen increases to 2.75 times the native fisher folk.  During the initial monsoon season, the reservoir attains the minimum water spread area. It is observed that most of the fishermen get concentrated in the central regions like Holebagilu leading to overexploitation of fish resource.

Muppane, Konjavalli, Melmanji and Kogar represent the peripheral localities of the western region. The biomass composition of this region shows that in these localities, the catch is formed by the native species. These are the flood plains where majority of the fish species breed during monsoon season. Huge quantities of fish catch in these localities during monsoon season poses severe threat to their population. It is evident that the catch per unit effort increases at the periphery than the other localities.

Fish translocation from other basins: Details on the pattern of introduction clearly reveal that no scientific approach has been adopted before determining the quantity of introduction. Seeds have been introduced depending on the availability. This unscientific approach has resulted in an artificial system of fishing wherein the indigenous fishing population has to rely on an external source to increase the fishing stock. The low catches during non-monsoon season affect the permanent fishermen of the region who are completely dependent on fish resources for livelihood. The biomass composition of this region also reveals that other than catfishes, no other native species has succeeded to form a stable population. Thus the fishermen are dependent on an artificial system in the form of introduction and harvest. It is implicative that the original fauna has been changed and hardy fish species has taken advantage of the vacant niches. Thus translocation of fishes from other basins has led to changes in the species composition.

Amphibians

Amphibians are the best ecological indicators among vertebrates for the unique features like duplex life style, moist permeable skin and ectothermic nature. They are the indicators of habitat fragmentation, as they negatively respond to both qualitative and quantitative changes in the habitat, ecosystem stress, impact of anthropogenic activities like dam construction, and sedimentation in streams due to road construction.

Twenty-four species of amphibians with 178 individuals were recorded in SVWS  accounting to 19% of the Western Ghats. Of the 24 species, 16 are endemic (71%) to the Western Ghats. Based on the IUCN criteria for conservation priority, 1 species endangered (Nyctibatrachus aliciae), 2 vulnerable, 2 threatened, 14 with least concern and 5 data deficient. These species belong to four families, namely bufonidae, microhylidae, ranidae and ichthyophiidae. Ranidae members predominate in the richness, abundance and endemism (20, 168, and 15). Based on the species abundance (Figure 2.4), the top six species include Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis (43)followed by Philautus cf. leucorhinus (24), Nyctibatrachus aliciae (21), Indirana semipalmata (16), Micrixalus saxicola (11) and Rana temporalis (10).Presence of endemics (16 amphibian species), endangered species Nyctibatrachus aliciae and vulnerable species Micrixalus saxicola and Nyctibatrachus major indicates the ecological importance of the region. Species list is provided in Table 13.5.

Table 13.5: Amphibians of Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuary

Species	Endemism	IUCN status
Bufonidae
Bufo melanostictus	NE	LC
Bufo scaber	NE	LC
Microhylidae
Microhyla ornata	NE	LC
Ranidae
Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis	NE	LC
Fejervarya keralensis	E	LC
Fejervarya limnocharis	NE	LC
Fejervarya rufescens	E	LC
Hoplobatrachus tigerinus	NE	LC
Indirana beddomii	E	LC
Indirana semipalmata	E	LC
Micrixalus saxicola	E	VU
Nyctibatrachus aliciae	E	EN
Nyctibatrachus major	E	VU
Philautus cf. leucorhinus	E	DD
Philautus cf. luteolus	E	DD
Philautus cf. ponmudi	E	DD
Philautus tuberohumerus	E	DD
Polypedates cf. leucomystax	NE	LC
Rana curtipes	E	LC
Rana malabarica	NE	LC
Rana temporalis	E	NT
Rana sp.	E	DD
Rhacophorus malabaricus	E	LC
Ichthyophiidae
Ichthyophis beddomei	E	LC

Nair and Gadgil (1975) reported the elephants during 1960s in SVWS. Over the period the elephants have disappeared from the park. Similarly from the north of the sanctuary i.e. between Sharavathi and Aghanashini rivers also the elephants have disappeared in recent years (Kumara and Singh 2005b). The probable reasons could be developmental activities like dam, road and increased number of human enclaves, made them completely isolation from the main population, and probably resulted in biased sex ratios over a period and in turn on breeding efficiency. Further, gradual elimination of the individuals drove into local extinction.

Figure 2.4: Amphibian species abundance in SVWS

An assessment of the Ecological status of Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuary (Sameer Ali et.al 2007) carried outthrough the estimation of species composition and their relative abundance with reference to space and time in a region. Faunal studies indicate the diverse groups of organisms found in the sanctuary. The data gathered both by sampling and opportunistic surveys are listed in Table 14.1.

Table 14.1: Faunal composition in Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuary

Fauna	Species
Ants	84
Coleopterans	166
Butterflies	173
Molluscs	21
Amphibians	24
Fishes	60
Birds	122
Reptiles	23
Mammals (including Bats)	43

Kumara H.N. 2007 studied the mammals of Sharavathi wildlife Sanctuary. A total of 1,332 animals belongs to ten species were sighted in 550 encounters during the day walk (Table 14.2). The ten species includes four arboreal mammals and six terrestrial mammals, and the relative abundance of arboreal mammals (7.19 +0.471) was more than (z= 14.64, p< .000) the terrestrial mammals (0.24 +0.056).  A total of 50 animals belonging to eight species including two unidentified small carnivores were sighted during the night walk (Table 14.3), which provides an overall relative abundance of 0.87 animals per kilometre. However the relative abundance of arboreal mammals (0.59) was higher than the small carnivores (0.22) and the other mammals include chevrotain and porcupine Hystrix indica (0.06), among arboreal mammals the slender loris (0.35) was more than the giant flying squirrel (0.23) and Travancore flying squirrel (0.01).

Table 14.2:  Relative abundance of mammals in the Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuary

Species	No. of sightings	Total no. ofanimals sighted during the day	No. animals seen/km (SE)
Arboreal mammals
Hanuman langur	243	835	4.52 (+0.380)
Bonnet macaque	31	147	0.91 (+0.241)
Lion-tailed macaque	7	23	0.12 (+0.057)
Indian giant squirrel	238	287	1.54 (+0.117)
Total	519	1292	7.19 (+0.471)
Terrestrial mammals
Gaur	1	1	0.004 (+0.004)
Sambar	9	13	0.05 (+0.020)
Spotted deer	4	6	0.05 (+0.026)
Indian muntjac	15	17	0.11 (+0.030)
Wild pig	1	2	0.01 (+0.012)
Indian grey mongoose	1	1	0.005 (+0.005)
Total

Table 14.3: Relative abundance of mammals in Sharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuary

Species	No. animals seen during the night	No. animals seen/km
Small carnivores
Leopard cat	5	0.07
Asian palm civet	3	0.04
Brown palm civet	5	0.07
Unidentified small carnivores	2	0.03
Total	15	0.22
Arboreal mammals
Slender loris	24	0.35
Giant flying squirrel	16	0.23
Travancore flying squirrel	1	0.01
Total	41	0.59
Other mammals
Indian spotted chevrotain	3	0.04
Indian crested porcupine	1	0.01
Total	4	0.06
Grand Total	60	0.87

Among various anthropogenic impacts, impounding of waters for electricity generation seems to have significantly altered terrestrial as well as aquatic ecosystems and associated biota including fish fauna. In this regard, a study was conducted in Sharavathi River of central Western Ghats to understand fish species composition with respect to landscape dynamics. Of the 64 fish species recorded, 25 were exclusive to the tributary streams, 29 to the reservoir and 10 common to both. Among these, 18 species were endemic to the Western Ghats and 10 to peninsular India. The study, carried out using a combination of remote sensing data as well as field investigations, shows that the streams having their catchments covered with evergreen to semi-evergreen forests, having high levels of ever greenness and endemic tree species of Western Ghats, were also richer in fish diversity and endemism compared to those catchments with other kinds of vegetation. It also highlights that endangered and endemic fish species are precariously clinging onto the stream habitats where patches of primeval forests, though degraded substantially, are still persisting. This illustrates the composition and a distribution of fish species have strong association with the kind of terrestrial landscape elements and highlights the importance of landscape approach to conservation and management of aquatic ecosystems. Occurrence of endangered, endemic and discovery of two new species of Schistura genus re-affirms ‘hottest hotspot’ status of the Western Ghats, a repository of biological wealth of rare kind, both in its aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Schistura nagodiensis and S. sharavathiensis are the new fish species of Schistura described from Sharavathi River, central Western Ghats.This also reported the range extension of Schistura nilgiriensis (earlier Nemacheilus nilgiriensis, Jayaram, 1999) from Sharavathi River. (Annexure 1, 2 & 3)

Social Aspects: The sanctuary is having 40 small villages comprising usually of 1 to 10 houses in each village. These villages are situated in valleys where perennial water source and deep soil is available (figure 3.1). None of the settlements are thickly populated. The people naturally move inside the sanctuary as they are depending upon the sanctuary for their fuel, fodder, small timber and other inevitable forest produces required for normal living.

Park zonations:  The sanctuary has been divided in to three zones based on the utility. Spatial extent of each zone is provided in Table 15.

1. Core Area or Core Zone.
2. Buffer Area or Buffer Zone.
3. Tourism Area or Tourism Zone.

Table 15: Zonations ofSharavathi Valley Wildlife Sanctuary

Zone	Forest	Compt	Extent in Ha.
Core zone	Karini SF	XX -1 to 7 (17)	5102.53
Buffer zone	Govardhanagiri SF	XX – 1 to 34	13473.68
Buffer zone	Channagonda SF (P)	XIX – 13 (P)	701.05
Tourism zone	Attigodu SF (P)	XIX – 1 to 3	763.70
Tourism zone	Muppani SF Bl. A	XIX – 4 to 7	961.77
Tourism zone	Muppani SF Bl. B	XIX – 8 to 11	629.16
Tourism zone	Sharavathi submerged area		12363.00
Tourism zone	Islands within the submerged area		507.00
	Others		8621.11
		TOTAL:-	43123.00

Figure 3.1: Villages in and around SVWS

Humans – Socio-Economic-Energy

Cooking and water heating are the two major end uses that require huge amount of firewood in the region. It is estimated that the average per capita firewood consumption is 1.17 tonnes/year, based on sample survey covering 25% of the villages and 20% of the households. The villagewise cooking and water heating energy consumption values are given in Table 16.1. Estimation of the total fuelwood requirement of the region amounts to 10435 tonnes for the year 1991 and it increased to 15328 during 2001.

Forest biomass availability

Spatial extent of SVWS is about 431 sq.km, with 110 sq.km under semi-evergreen to evergreen forests, 49 sq.km under deciduous forests, 66sq.km under plantations and 90 sq.km under wastelands. Considering the average secondary productivities of each type of forest (3.6 t/h/y for evergreen, 12.5 t/h/y for deciduous, 5 t/h/y for plantations and 0.6 t/h/y for scrub and waste lands), the annual availability of forest biomass as a source of fuelwood is about 189.23x103 tonnes.

Population increase at 3.9% per year has resulted in increased fuel wood demand. Apart from gathering dried and fallen twigs and leaves, local people also cut young saplings, green twigs, and even whole tree. Several plant species preferred by wild animals are being cut for fuel wood as well as for mulching and fodder. Table 16.1, lists the villagewise fuelwood consumption.

Table 16.1: Villagewise per-capita fuelwood consumption (Kg/person/day)

Village Name	Cooking	Water Heating
		Monsoon	Winter	Summer
Ambargodlu	1.5	1.5	1.2	1.2
Chikkamathur	1.7	1.5	1.3	1.3
Mattikoppa	1.5	1.4	1.2	1.2
Hunalamadike	1.8	2.8	1.7	1.7
Valagere	1.6	1.8	1.4	1.3
Kalasavalli	1.7	1.8	1.4	1.4
Araballi	1.4	1.8	1.4	1.4
Honnemardu	1.8	1.7	1.4	1.4
Baliggere	2.0	2.0	1.3	1.3
Bannumane	1.6	1.4	1.2	1.2
Aravadi	1.7	1.7	1.2	1.2
Brahmana Ilakalale	1.6	1.5	1.2	1.2

At present the domestic energy consumption is well within the total biomass availability from the region. However, with increasing population poses a serious threat to the sustainability of forest resources.

The average livestock holding is in the order of 3.33 buffaloes, 2.27 bullocks and 4.5 cattle per household. Most of the households opt for open grazing in forests that hampers natural regeneration. The estimated total number of livestock in the sanctuary area is 17655. Animal residue (dung) can be used for biogas production, which might minimise the fuelwood pressure on forests. Quantification shows an order of 7627 cu.m to 11122 cu.m per day of biogas generation potential in the region (assuming that a kilogram of fresh animal residue provides 0.03 – 0.042 m3 of gas), which is sufficient to meet the cooking energy needs of 27572 – 21801 persons. However the energy transition from fuelwood to biogas requires policy initiatives as most collect firewood at zero cost due to proximity of forests.

Village forest farms in the selected village would reduce the pressure of cattle on natural forests. Promotion of stall-feeding and conversion of degraded common lands to community fodder farm would bring down the pressure on forests. Village self help groups to be involved in creation and maintenance of village fodder farms in selected villages

Threats and Management

Protected areas (PAs) are established for protecting a particular area with clear management objective. Factors such as encroachment of habitats, poaching and grazing are responsible for the depletion and extinction of wildlife resources. The cases of encroachment of habitats and activities like poaching and grazing are threatening a majority of the wildlife habitats around the world. With the passage of time, human influences on habitats had an alarming impact. SVWS harbours endemics and threatened species of flora and fauna, and hence requires immediate protection and conservation measures. Already large areas of pristine forests have been cleared for hydroelectric-projects, Acacia auruculiformis plantations, and for agricultural operations, etc. The failure in the conservation of reserve forests is visible in many places with the continued process of habitat destruction. The forests need to be protected from human interference that is detrimental to the growth and regeneration of the forest. This requires improved forest security, transparency in forest product utilization, and a stronger political will.

Human and livestock inside the sanctuary

There are 121 villages inside the sanctuary, having higher human and cattle population (Table 16.2), and 59 of them are in protected area (enclosures). Increased human habitats with forest encroachments have seriously affected the wildlife population. The cultivation of Vetiveria sp. (lemon grass) extensively inside the sanctuary areas such as Meghane (located in Buffer zone of the sanctuary) poses serious threat to the wildlife population.

Table 16.2: Human and Cattle population inside the sanctuary area.

Village name	Cattle population	Human population
Talakalale	154	95
B. Ilakalale	59	487
Karumane	70	453
Aralagodu	66	338
Bannumane	58	355
B.kopparige	26	156
Muppane	38	413
Arodi	16	44
Mandavalli	80	555
Ambargodlu	41	192
Kagarasu	01	18
Hedathri	23	46
Banukuli	105	945
Kanur	45	501
Kanapagaru	114	1524
Gudihithlu	37	367
Nagavalli	142	1242
Balige	47	498
Nelahari	28	284
Uralagallu	23	209
Chennagonda	181	616
Karani	69	617
Kattinkaru	128	1058
Total	1551	11013

People depend on forests for livestock grazing, which results in soil compaction and affects natural regeneration. Apart from domestic livestock, a large population of wild cattle is trapped inside the sanctuary (due to the submersion) contributing to grazing pressure throughout the year.

Agriculture and Encroachment: Agricultural practices in the region are traditional and dependent on forests. The forests provide leaf litter, green leaves and fencing material to the farmers. The dense forest patches are the sources of water to the crops. Present study found that the forest encroachments have resulted in increased agricultural lands. It has been found that the land submergence is one of the major reasons for increased land encroachment in the forests. Migrating and migrated population, marginal farmers and economically sensitive households were major contributors of land encroachments. The widespread occurrence of encroachment is observed in the Kanur, Hebbankeri, Meghane and Nagavalli area, where slash and burn practice is prevalent for growing cash crops especially cotton, pepper, lemon grass, ginger, paddy and areca.

NTFP collection: Resource use has been restricted to the buffer zones, where it has been regulated, while core areas are completely closed. An amendment in 1991 to the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 specifies that, in wildlife sanctuaries, the chief wildlife warden must certify that any manipulation does not harm wildlife, and that the state government approves the manipulation. The major NTFP of the area is leaves of Diospyros melanoxylon and Cinnamomum zeylanicum. Apart from these, on a minor scale, Emblica officinalis, Terminalia chebula, and various medicinal plants, cane, Bambusa sp., and honey are also collected. Destructive methods of collection of NTFP by lopping the branches of trees like, Myristica malabarica, Garcinia gummigutta, Cinnamomum zeylanicum etc. will affect the endemic tree species.

The industrial extraction of timber from the primary evergreen forests in the past has led to the depletion of valuable endemic species and loss of many special habitats such as Myristica swamps.

NTFP collection is totally banned in the core zone of the sanctuary area since it may pose a threat to the endemic tree species and their regeneration. But, in some areas, the community-based approach can be carried out instead of collections done by tenders given to non-locals by the forest department. This approach will be more appealing since each villager will become more responsible for conserving the forests, as removal of a tree would curtail the financial gains through NTFP. Destructive methods of collection of NTFP by lopping the branches of trees have to be stopped.

Timber smuggling: Timber smuggling is reported to be a major problem in the sanctuary area. It is reportedly smuggled even out of the Linganmakki islands, indicating the involvement of some organized groups. The timber smugglers take advantage of the remoteness of the islands from the human settlements for their illegal activities. We have observed timber harvesting at many places like, Karani, Banukuli, Kanur etc., within the sanctuary, calling for greater and effective vigilance from the authorities and the village forest committees (VFCs).

Monoculture Plantation : Large areas of the sanctuary (15.27%) have been planted with monoculture plantations depriving the wildlife of their habitats. Preference of single species in forest plantations is another reason responsible for depletion of fodder for animals. This could become a major drawback to any kind of habitat restoration programmes as well as energy improvement technologies. The practice of planting of acacia and casuarina is still in progress in open areas of Muppane, Aralagodu, Karani, etc. These monoculture plantations have no other advantages to the wildlife, other than aiding as hiding places for some of the small mammals and agricultural pests. Changes in microclimate and huge litter cover in plantations adjacent to the evergreen and semi evergreen forests would inhibit the growth of younger tree species of natural forests.

Grasslands have been converted to monoculture plantations in the forest enclosures like, Madenur, Muppane, and Shashichowka denying the fodder to herbivores like gaur, sambar, spotted deer, etc. The monoculture of any exotic should be strictly discouraged in the areas of high animal population and movement. Any such reforestation activity should be in accordance with the local need and with indigenous species. Gradual shifting of natural plant species in the monoculture plantation areas is to be done. Habitat improvements with fodder plants species preferred by wild animals are to be planted instead of monocultures of acacia, pinus or casuarinas.

Forest Fire: Usually in this sanctuary forest fires are associated with highly fragmented areas. This plays an important role in the distribution of ungulates and bovines. The main reasons for the fire are the dryness of the forest and the deciduous vegetation. Humans on a yearly basis to enhance the growth of grasses burn much of the forest ground vegetation. While fire generally does not kill adult trees, it will effectively destroy the seedlings and young trees, thus preventing tree regeneration, creating senescent forests and eventually leading to the disappearance of forests (Kessler, 2001). Almost every year forest department burnt the grassy blanks in some places to improve the quality of fodder for wild animals; this phenomenon also affects the habitat of burrowing small mammals. The fire has become a major factor in the degradation of forests. In order to restore the vegetation, these forests must be protected from fire, by preventing it by undertaking measures such as creation of awareness on the implication of fire among the local communities and proper maintenance of fire line.

Forest fragmentation : The humid forests, repository of diverse flora and fauna have been subjected to severe habitat fragmentation. Increase in forest fragmentation also gives rise to edge effect with respect to micro climatic changes, species invasion from surrounding vegetation, aetc. Forest fragmentation is a major problem in this sanctuary. Several roads that pass through the sanctuary and Linganmakki reservoir have dissected and cleaved the habitats. Other than these, heavy biotic pressures in terms of encroachments for human settlements, agricultural fields, etc. have contributed significantly to the fragmentation of habitats.

Past land use practices such as shifting cultivation and selective felling have influenced the present-day forest quality and biodiversity patterns, which are evident from the presence of patch and perforated forest in primary forested areas. Wide scale selective felling of tree like Poeciloneuron indicum, Callophylum tomentosum and Lopopetalum wightianum and Artocarpus hirsutus had been carried out since 1921 to 1971 for railway sleepers, match wood and plywood in places like Karani, Govardhangiri and Kanur, which comes in the core and buffer zone of the sanctuary. The study shows that the regeneration of these species especially Poeciloneuron indicum and Palaquium ellipticum in Karani and Kanur is excellent. Selection felling of industrial timbers continued almost to the mid 1980’s, causing considerable impoverishment of forests.

Human-animal conflicts: Due to fragmentation and reduction of natural habitats with the uncontrolled growth of agricultural practices in the sanctuary area over several years has resulted in repeated stress over the forest areas and acted negatively on the wildlife. Conflicts between wildlife and human have emerged as a problem in the arena of wildlife management. The conflicts, which result from the destruction of crops and damage to property, have raised both social as well as conservation issues, both in and outside the sancturary. Efforts to keep animals out of crop fields by wildlife officials have been futile and sometimes result in people perceiving the animals as being malevolent. Thus, human- animal conflict is a common scene over the entire area. Herbivore and omnivore animals like Indian gaur, Indian porcupine, sambar, wild boar, rodents, etc., inflict considerable damage to agricultural crops. Several incidences of sloth bear attack have been reported in the core and buffer zones of the wildlife sanctuary (villages like, Kattinkaru, Karani, Kanur and Kogar). To tackle this problem, fencing the crops is a common procedure, which is detrimental to both wildlife and forests. The fencing material is usually the locally available wooden log, brought from nearby forests. For supplementing the wooden logs, large number of regenerating forest trees were cut down thereby jeopardizing the forest growth itself. These fences act as enclosures for wildlife movement from one place to another.

Hunting is practised as a sport, for subsistence, for crop protection and as a part of religious tradition by many village communities. During night-times, people form groups and go for hunting. A number of communities (Nayaks, Edegaru and Namadari gowdru) in the sanctuary carry out poaching activity. They target on wild animals like mouse deer, rabbit, wild boar, etc., due to which, the wild animal population is decreasing at a rapid rate. People support hunting as it reduces the probable damage to crops. Even some of the birds like spotted dove, cattle egret, pond heron, jungle fowl, peacock etc., are being hunted for meat by the local tribes. Poaching for money is seldom indulged in and gaurs constitute the main victim. Outside people are believed to be coming to the area to carry out this kind of poaching. At least one or two episodes do occur every year. The remoteness of the area and sparsely distributed human settlements are again advantageous to these poachers. In aquatic environment high fishing activity of the local people, licensed fishermen and migratory fishermen has threatened the indigenous fish population along with the endangered tortoise population of the region.

Proposed habitat corridors: Wildlife present in the region are seasonal migrants from adjacent sanctuaries and hence, the corridors used by these animals should be given more attention. Three micro-habitat corridors have been proposed for linking fragmented habitats, so as to have continued link of populations to maintain sufficient viable reproductive groups to permit breeding. Corridors are to be developed with the native species of plants, which meet the food and fodder requirement of fauna during all seasons. Table 16.3 lists the present land-use in the proposed corridors; similarly Figure 3.2 illustrates the regions proposed for corridors.

Channagonda and Kattinkar Corridor:These corridors are proposed in the western side of the sanctuary with evergreen and semi evergreen forests. This region comes under four state forests namely Muppane, Channagonda, Karani and part of Govardhanagiri.

Table 16.3:Details of land-use pattern in the proposed corridors.

Corridor	LC_No.	Village Name	Population	Area (ha)	Forest (ha)	Agriculture (ha)	CW (ha)	Un.Cultivated (ha)
1	178	Channagonda	861	6391.49	2353.39	139.04	2158.74	1740.32
2	200	Banukuli	380	2250.59	340	80.68	1745.47	84.44
3	209	Mandavalli	425	875.23	0	61.12	760.20	53.91

Figure 3.2: Proposed wildlife corridors in the SVWS

Corridors 1 is proposed for free movement of sloth bear, sambar and gaur. It has grasslands and barren lands surrounded by a good semi evergreen and evergreen forest. It encompasses the areas like Channagonda, Kanapagaru, Muppane, Aralagodu and Bedrur. This corridor comes in Muppane state forest and Govardhanagiri state forest and has sparsely distributed semi evergreen and moist deciduous forest. This helps animals to migrate to adjoining forests of Talakalale balancing reservoir, Henni and Gerusoppa area.

Corridor 2 is proposed in Banukuli village and has grassland surrounded by semi evergreen and moist deciduous forests (Kanapagaru and Channagonda villages). Corridor 3 comes under Mandavalli village mainly for the movement of tiger, gaur and sambar. This corridor is nearer to Vatemadike village with grasslands interspersed with moist deciduous forest.

Restoration of forest: In order to restore the forest depending on the state of degradation the following list of plants has been recommended. The list of plants recommended for deciduous, semi-evergreen and evergreen degraded patches area given in Table 17.1, 17.2 and 17.3 respectively.

Table 17.1: Plant recommended for restoration of deciduous forests in the sanctuary.

Plant species	Common name	Ecosystem and human value
Olea dioica	Madle	EV
Mimusops elengi	Ranjalu	EV, NTFP
Aporosa lindleyana	Salle	EV, FR
Dillenia pentagyna	Kanagalu	EV
Garcinia indica	Muruga	EV, FR, NTFP
Terminalia paniculata	Hunalu	EV
Flacourtia montana	Mullu sampige	EV, FR
Mangifera indica	Mavu	EV, FR, MD
Syzygium caryophyllatum	Kunnerlu	EV, FR
Syzygium cumini	Neralu	EV, FR
Artocarpus heterophylla	Halasu	EV, FR
Artocarpus gomezianus	Wote	EV, NTFP

Table 17.2: Plants recommended for restoration of semi-evergreen forests in the sanctuary

Plant species	Common name	Ecosystem and human value
Aglaia anamallayana	Kempunola	EV
Artocarpus heterophyllus	Halasu	NTFP, F
Artocarpus hirsutus	Hebbalasu	EV, F
Canarium strictum	Kaidhupa	EV, NTFP
Dimocarpus longan	Kendal	EV
Garcinia morella	Harisina gurgi	EV, F
Holigarna arnottiana	Sannele holageru	EV
Holigarna beddomei	Doddele holageru	EV
Hopea ponga	Haiga	EV
Knema attenuata	Hedaglu	EV
Mimusops elengi	Ranjalu	EV, NTFP
Vepris bilocularis	Mangappe	EV
Polyalthia sp.		EV
Mangifera indica	Mavu	EV, F
Symplocos racemosa	Chunga	EV

Table 17.3:  Plants recommended for restoration of evergreen forests in the sanctuary

Plant species	Common name	Ecosystem and Human value
Poeciloneuron indicum	Balgi	EV
Knema attenuata	Hedaglu	EV, F
Myristica malabarica	Rampatre	EV, NTFP
Myristica dactyloides	Patre	EV, NTFP
Persea macrantha	Gulmavu	EV
Calophyllum tomentosum	Surhonne	EV
Dipterocarpus indicus	Dhuma	EV
Palaquium ellipticum	Hadasale	EV
Ficus nervosa		EV
Mastixia arborea	Niratte	EV
Vateria indica	Saldhupa	EV, NTFP
Elaeocarpus tuberculatus		EV
Mangifera indica	Mavu	EV, F
Chrysophyllum roxburghii		EV
Canarium strictum	Kaidhupa	EV
Calamus sp.	Betha	NTFP
Syzygium gardneri	Nerlu	EV, FR

Policies: In SVWS, forest enclosures play an important role in order to maintain viable wildlife population. Madenur, Muppane, Hallibyle and Shashichowka are the few forest enclosures with high density of gaur, sambar, and mouse deer. The intention of these enclosures is to provide protection to both flora and fauna of the region. These forest enclosures serve a better protection to some of the vulnerable species from the poachers. Most of these enclosures are planted with monoculture species like, Acacia, Casuarina, etc., which in turn not a suitable habitat for the above mentioned wildlife. In order to maintain the high density of these species, gradual conversion of monoculture into native species As the territories of wild animals extend beyond these enclosures, flocking of wild animals and futile attempts to cross these barriers have been noticed. This suggests the expansion of existing enclosures and creation of new enclosures, which has to be undertaken based on rigorous monitoring of wildlife movement.

Effective vigilance has to be exercised by the forest department in order to stop the further encroachments and poaching of wild animals inside the sanctuary. To avoid water scarcity, large number of water holes/percolation ponds should be constructed inside the sanctuary. The existing awareness programmes such as wildlife weeks, wildlife census, etc., have to be expanded and strengthened in the sanctuary and surrounding areas in order to educate and create awareness among local people. Interaction of forest officials with local people helps to arrive at solutions based on clear understanding of situation in the sanctuary.

In the adjoining areas like, Gerusoppa, Uttarakoppa, Aruvakki etc., Kyasanur Forest Disease (KFD) is more prevalent due to high degree of forest degradation, that has led to the extensive growth of weeds, where in ticks, the main disease vector inhabit. Therefore restoration of full-canopied natural forest in the sanctuary area is of paramount importance. The Sharavathi valley wildlife sanctuary has to be extended further so as to link to the Mookambika wildlife sanctuary to facilitate the better movement of wild animals and also conservation of endangered and endemic fauna (like Lion-tailed Macaque) and pristine forest areas (like, Kodachadri, Gurta, Malemane and Kathalekan).

3. GUDAVI BIRD SANCTUARY

Gudavi bird sanctuary is located at 14° 25' 59" to 14° 26'41" N and 75° 6' 43" to 75° 1' 28" E in Soraba Taluk of Shimoga district (Figure 4). The Gudavi Bird Sanctuary was preliminary notified vide government notification No. AHFF-262-FWL-86 Dtd 10.07.1989 of Government of Karnataka and finally notified vide Government notification no. FEE-220-FWL-99 Dtd 4.09.2000 (Karnataka Forest department, 2006). The total area of Gudavi bird Sanctuary is 73.68 Hectares of which water spread area is 33 Ha and is surrounded by moist deciduous forest, interspersed with grassy patches (Karnataka Forest department, 2006). In this sanctuary there are two ponds called as Vaddakere and Gudavi ponds. The catchment area for this sanctuary is mainly agriculture land and other wooded areas. It is surrounded by paddy fields on North, West and Southern sides and dry and on North and Eastern sides. There are three villages namely Hullemaradi, Gudavi and Kallambi with a population of about 3000. Majority of the population are agriculturists.The area is plain and soil is deep and lateritic in origin. The average rainfall of the area is 1500 mm. The maximum and minimum temperature recorded in the sanctuary is 15° C and 38º C respectively. The area surrounding the wetland is covered with dense moist deciduous forest.

Figure 4: Gudavi Bird Sanctuary

The boundaries of the sanctuary are: North: Tank bound and Hinduvaly S.No.199, 201, 211, 71 & 204 of Gudavi village. East: Gudavi road and Hinduvaly S.No. 55 and 64 of Kallambi village. South: S.No. 54 & 55 of Kallambi village. West: Hulemardi road & Hiduvaly S.No. 182.

Composition of vegetation
Mainly five tree species are utilized by birds for nesting – Vitex leucoxylon, Kiranganelia reticulate, Phyllanthus polyphyllus, Ficus lacur and Terminalia sp.

Bird species composition: There are about 191 species of birds, out of 63 species of birds are totally dependent on water. The number of species changes in different months. Highest number of species is observed during October and least number of species in July. (Karnataka Forest department, 2006)

Dayananda G.Y. (2009) studied the bird diversity of Gudavi Bird Sanctuary. The avifauna of Gudavi Bird Sanctuary belonged to 16 orders.Out  of  these members  of  Ciconiformes,  Paliconiformes and  Passeriformes  contributed  maximum  to the  avifauna  of  the  ponds  throughout  the year.  The members  of  order  Anseriformes and  Charadriformes  are  migratory  specieswho  utilize  the  ponds  for  foraging  during winter months. However, the local migrants are  widespread  throughout  the  year  and  to adjacent  wetlands,  moving  to  and  fro utilizing  the  best  resources  available  to them. The total number of species recorded in this sanctuary was 218.Of the  218  species  of  birdssighted  at  the  sanctuary,  a  large  number  of terrestrial birds  (163  species)  constituted 75.11% whereas 24.88% was constituted by a  relatively  small  number  of  aquatic  birds consisting of 54 species. In terms of species strength of families represented Muscicapidae was the largest with 35 species. (Table 18)

Table18: Species composition of birds at Gudavi Bird Sanctuary

SN	Common name	Scientific Name	Residential Status	Abundance Status
1. Family: Podicipedidae
1	Little Grebe	Tachybaptusruficollis	R	V Com
2. Family: Phalacrocoracedae
2	Great Cormorant	Phalacrocoraxcarbo	RM	Com
3	Indian Shag	Phalacrocoraxfuscicollis	RM	Com
4	Little Cormorant	Phalacrocoraxniger	RM	L Com
3. Family: Anhingidae
5	Darter or Snake bird	Anhingamelamogaster	RM	L Com
4. Family: Ardeidae
6	Grey Heron	Ardeacinerea	RM	L Com
7	Purple Heron	Ardeapurpurea	RM	L Com
8	Little Green Heron	Butoridesstriatus	RM	Ra
9	Pond Heron	Ardeolagrayii	R	L Com
10	Cattle Egret	Bubulcusibis	RM	Com
11	Large Egret	Casmerodiusalbus	RM	Com
12	Smaller Egret	Mesophoyxintermedia	RM	L Com
13	Little Egret	Egrettagarzetta	R	L Com
14	Night Heron	Nycticoraxnycticorax	R	L Com
15	Chestnut Bittern	Ixobrychuscinnamoneus	RM	L Com
5. Ciconiidae
16	Painted Stork	Mycterialeucocephala	RM	L Com
17	Openbill Stork	Anastomusoscitans	R	L Com
6. Family: Threskiornithidae
18	Black-headed Ibis	Threskiornismelanocephalus	R	L Com
19	Black Ibis	Pseudibispapillosa	R	Un Com
20	Glossy Ibis	Plegadisfalcinellus	RM	Un Com
21	Spoonbill	Platalealeucorodia	RM	L Com
7. Family: Anatidae
22	Lesser whistling Teal	Dendrocygnajavanica	R	L Com
23	Pintail	Anusacuta	M	Com
24	Common Teal	Anascrecca	RM	V Com
25	Spot-billed Duck	Anaspoecilorhyncha	RM	Com
26	Garganey	Anasquerquedula	M	V Com
27	Shoveller	Anasclypeata	M	Com
28	Cotton Teal	Nettapuscoromandelianus	R	L Com
29	Nakta or Comb Duck	Sarkidiornismelanotos	R	Un Com
8. Accipitridae
30	Crested Honey-Buzzard	Pernisptilorhyncus	R	L Com
31	Common P ariahkite	Milvusmigrans	R	Com
32	Brahminy kite	Haliasturindus	R	L Com
33	Shikra	Accipiterbadius	RM	Com
34	Sparrow Hawk	Accipiternisus	R	L Com
35	Besra Sparrow Hawk	Accipitervirgatus	R	L Com
36	Tawny Eagle	Aquilarapax	RM	L Com
37	Greater spotted Eagle	Aquilaclanga	RM	Ra
38	Ring tailed fishing Eagle	Haliaeetusleucoryphus	M	Ra
39	P ale Harrier	Circusmacrourus	RM	L Com
40	P aid Harrier	Circusmelanoleucos	M	Ra
41	Marsh Harrier	Circusaeruginosus	R	L Com
42	Common Kestrel	Falcotinnunculus	RM	L Com
9. Phasianidae
43	Grey Partridge	Francolinuspondicerianus	R	Com
44	Jungle bush Quill	Perdiculaasiatica	R	Com
45	Red Spurfowl	Galloperdixspadicea	R	L Com
46	Grey Jungle fowl	Gallussonneratii	R	Com
47	Common Peafowl	Pavocristatus	R	Com
10. Turnicidae
48	Common Bustard Quail	Turnixsuscitator	R	L Com
11. Rallidae
49	IndianRail   Blue-breasted Banded	Rallusstriatus	RM	Un Com
50	Slaty-legged Banded Crake	Rallinaeurizonoides	R	Un Com
51	Brown Crake	Amaurornisakool	R	Com
52	White breasted Water hen	Amaurornisphoenicurus	R	Com
53	Water Cock	Gallicrexcinerea	RM	L Com
54	Indian Moorhen	Gallinulachloropus	R	Com
55	Purple Moorhen	Porphyrioporphyrio	RM	L Com
56	Coot	Fulicaatra	R	V Com
12. Jacanidae
57	P heasant tailed Jacana	Hydrophasianuschirurgus	R	Un Com
58	Bronze winged Jacana	Metopidicusindicus	R	L Com
13. Charadriidae
59	Red-wattled Lapwing	Vanellusindicus	R	Com
60	Yellow-wattled Lapwing	Vanellusmalabaricus	M	L Com
61	Grey P lover	Pluvialissquatarola	M	Un Com
62	Golden Plover	Pluvialisdominica	RM	Va
63	Little ringed Plover	Charadriusdubius	M	Com
64	Marsh Sandpiper	Tringastagnatilis	M	L Com
65	Spotted Sandpiper	Tringaglareola	RM	L Com
14. Scolopacidae
66	Common or Fantail Snipe	Gallinagogallinago	R	Com
15. Recurvirostridae
67	Black-winged Stilt	Himantopushimantopus	R	Com
16. Laridae
68	Indian River Tern	Sternaaurantia	RM	L Com
69	Common Tern	Sternahirundo	R	L Com
17. Culumbidae
70	Grey fronted Green Pigeon	Treronpompadora	R	L Com
71	Common Green Pigeon	Treronphoenicoptera	R	Com
72	Green Imperial Pigeon	Duculabadia	R	L Com
73	Blue Rock Pigeon	Columbalivia	R	V Com
74	Spotted Dove	Streptopeliachinensis	R	V Com
18. Psittacidae
75	Rose ringed P arakeet	Psittaculakrameri	R	V Com
76	Blossom headed P arakeet	Psittaculacyanocephala	RM	L Com
77	Lorikeet	Loriculusvernalis	RM	L Com
19. Cuculidae
78	P ied crested Cuckoo	Clamatorjacobinus	R	L Com
79	Common hawk Cuckoo	Cuculusvarius	R	L Com
80	Indian Cuckoo	Cuculusmicropterus	R	L Com
81	Koel	Eudynamysscolopacea	R	V Com
82	Large Greenbilled Malkoha	Rhopodytestristis	R	L Com
83	Small Greenbilled Malkoha	Rhopodytesviridirostris	R	L Com
84	Coucal or Crow-Pheasant	Centropussinensis	R	V Com
85	Lesser Coucal	Centropusbengalensis	R	V Com
20. Strigidae
86	Barred Jungle Owlet	Glaucidiumradiatum	R	L Com
87	Spotted Owlet	Athenebrama	R	Com
88	Mottled wood Owl	Strixocellata	R	L Com
89	Brown wood Owl	Strixleptogrammica	RM	L Com
21. Apodidae
90	Indian edible nest Swiftlet	Collocaliaunicolor	R	Com
91	House Swift	Apusaffinis	RM	Com
22. Alcedinidae
92	Pied Kingfisher	Cerylerudis	R	Com
93	Small blue Kingfisher	Alcedoatthis	R	Com
94	Stork-billed Kingfisher	Pelargopsiscapensis	R	L Com
95	White-breasted Kingfisher	Halcyonsmyrnensis	R	Com
23. Meropidae
96	Chestnut headed Bee-ater	Meropsleschenaultia	RM	L Com
97	Small green Bee-eater	Meropsorientalis	R	L Com
98	Blue bearded Bee-eater	Nyctyornisathertoni	R	L Com
24. Coraciidae
99	Roller or Blue jay	Coraciasbenghalensis	R	Com
25. Upupidae
100	Hoopoe	Upupaepops	R	V Com
26. Bucerotidae
101	Common grey Hornbill	Tockusbirostris	R	Com
102	Malabar Grey Hornbill	Tockusgriseus	R	Com
103	Malabar pied Hornbill	Anthracoceroscoronatus	R	Com
27. Megalaimidae
104	Large green Barbet	Megalaimazeylanica	R	Com
105	Lineated Barbet	Megalaimalineate	R	L Com
106	Small green Barbet	Megalaimaviridis	R	Com
107	Crimson throated Barbet	Megalaimarubricapilla	R	Com
108	Crimson breasted Barbet	Megalaimahaemacephala	R	Com
28. Picidae
109	Rufous Woodpecker	Micropternusbrachyurus	R	L Com
110	LesserWoodpeckergolden backed	Dinopiumbenghalense	R	L Com
111	Great black Woodpecker	Dryocopusjavensis	R	L Com
112	YellowWoodpeckerfronted pied	Picoidesmahrattensis	R	L Com
113	Pigmy Woodpecker	Picoidesnanus	R	L Com
29. Pittidae
114	Indian Pitta	Pittabrachyura	R	Com
30. Alaudidae
115	Bush Lark	Mirafraassamica	R	Com
116	Red winged Bush-Lark	Mirafraerythroptera	R	L Com
117	Black bellied Finch-Lark	Eremopterixgrisea	RM	L Com
118	Rufous tailed Finch-Lark	Ammomanesphoenicurus	R	L Com
119	Crested Lark	Galeridacristata	R	L Com
120	Sykes's Crested Lark	Galeridadeva	RM	L Com
31. Hirundinidae
121	Swallow	Hirundorustica	RM	L Com
122	Wire tailed Swallow	Hirundosmithii	RM	L Com
123	Indian cliff Swallow	Hirundofluvicola	R	L Com
32. Laniidae
124	Rufous backed Shrike	Laniusschach	R	L Com
33. Oriolidae
125	Golden Oriole	Oriolusoriolus	RM	Com
126	Black naped Oriole	Orioluschinensis	R	Com
127	Black headed Oriole	Oriolusxanthornus	R	Com
34. Dicruridae
128	King Crow or Black Drongo	Dicrurusadsimilis	R	Com
129	Grey or Ashy Drongo	Dicrurusleucophaeus	R	Com
130	Racket tailed Drongo	Dicrurusparadiseus	R	Com
35. Sturnidae
131	Brahminy Myna	Sturnuspagodarum	R	Com
132	Indian Myna	Acridotherestristis	R	Com
133	Jungle Myna	Acridotheresfuscus	R	Com
36. Corvidae
134	Tree pie	Dendrocittavagabunda	R	Com
135	White bellied Treepie	Dendrocittaleucogastra	R	Com
136	House Crow	Couvussplendens	R	V Com
137	Jungle Crow	Corvusmacrorhynchos	R	V Com
37. Campephagidae
138	Pied Flycatcher-Shrike	Hemipuspicatus	R	Com
139	Large Wood Shrike	Tephrodornisgularis	R	Com
140	Common Wood Shrike	Tephrodornispandicerianus	R	V Com
141	Black headed cuckoo Shrike	Coracinamelanoptera	R	Com
142	Scarlet Minivet	Pericrocotusflammeus	R	Un Com
143	Long tailed Minivet	Pericrocotusethologus	R	Un Com
144	Small Minivet	Pericrocotuscinnamomeus	R	Com
145	White bellied Minivet	Pericrocotuserythropygius	R	Com
38. Irenidae
146	Common Iora	Aegithinatiphia	R	V Com
147	Marshall's Iora	Aegithinanigrolutea	R	Com
148	Gold fronted Chloropsis	Chloropsisaurifrons	R	Com
39. Pycnonotidae
149	Red whiskered Bulbul	Pycnonotusjocosus	R	V Com
150	White cheeked Bulbul	Pycnonotusleucogenys	R	Com
151	Red vented Bulbul	Pycnonotuscafer	R	V Com
152	Black Bulbul	Hypsipetesmadagascariensis	R	Com
40. Muscicapidae
Sub Family :Timalinae
153	Spotted Babbler	Pellorneumruficeps	R	Com
154	Slaty headed scimitar Babbler	Pomatorhinushorsfieldi	R	Com
155	Common Babbler	Turdoidescaudatus	R	V Com
156	Large grey Babbler	Turdoidesmalcolmi	R	V Com
157	Jungle Babbler	Turdoidesstriatus	R	V Com
158	White headed Babbler	Turdoidesaffinis	R	Com
159	Wynaad laughing Thrush	Garrulaxdelesserti	R	Un Com
160	Jerdon’s laughing Thrush	Garrulaxjerdoni	R	Un Com
161	White headed shrike Babbler	Gampsorhynchusrufulus	R	Un Com
162	Black capped Sibia	Heterophasiacapistrata	R	Com
Sub Family: Muscicapinae
163	Black and Orange Flycatcher	Muscicapanigrorufa	RM	Un Com
164	Tickll's blue Flycatcher	Muscicapatickelliae	R	Com
165	Verditer Flycatcher	Muscicapathalassina	R	Com
166	Nilgiri verditer Flycatcher	Muscicapaalbicaudata	R	Com
167	White spotted fantail Flycatcher	Rhipiduraalbicollis	R	Com
168	Paradise Flycatcher	Terpsiphoneparadise	R	Com
169	Black naped blue Flycatcher	Hypothymisazurea	R	Com
Sub Family: Sylviinae
170	Rufous fronted Wren-Warbler	Priniabuchanani	RM	Com
171	Ashy Wren-Warbler	Priniasocialis	M	Ra
172	Jungle Wren-Warbler	Priniasylvatica	M	Ra
173	Tailor bird	Orthotomussutorius	RM	V Com
174	Striated marsh Warbler	Megaluruspalustris	R	Un Com
175	Booted Warbler	Hippolaiscaligata	R	Un Com
176	Common Chiffchaff	Phylloscopuscollybita	R	Un Com
177	Large billed leaf Warbler	Phylloscopusoccipitalis	R	Un Com
Sub Family: Turdinae
178	Blue Chat	Erithacusbrunneus	R	V Com
179	Magpie Robin	Copsychussaularis	RM	V Com
180	Shama	Copsychusmalabaricus	R	Un Com
181	Brown rock Chat	Cercomelafusca	RM	Un Com
182	Pied bush Chat	Saxicolacaprata	R	Com
183	Jerdon’s bush Chat	Saxicolajerdoni	R	Com
184	Indian Robin	Saxicoloidesfulicata	R	V Com
185	Blue Rock Thrush	Monticolasolitarius	R	Com
186	Orange headed Thrush	Zootheracitrinecyanotus	R	Com
187	Black Bird	Turdusmerula	RM	Com
41. Paridae
188	Grey Tit	Parusmajor	RM	Com
189	White winged Black Tit	Parusnuchalis	R	Com
190	Yellow cheeked Tit	Parusxanthogenys	R	Com
42. Sittidae
191	Chestnut bellied Nuthatch	Sittacastanea	R	Com
43. Motacillidae
192	Paddy field Pipit	Anthusrufulus	R	L Com
193	Forest Wagtail	Motacillaindica	R	L Com
194	Yellow Wagtail	Motacillaflava	R	Lcom
195	White Wagtail	Motacillaalba	R	Com
196	Large pied Wagtail	Motacillamaderaspatensis	R	Lcom
44. Dicaeidae
197	Tickell's Flowerpecker	Dicaeumerythrorhynchos	R	L Com
198	Plain coloured Flowerpecker	Dicaeunconcolor	R	L Com
199	Fire breasted Flowerpecker	Dicaeunignipectus	R	L Com
45. Nectariniidae
200	Purple rumped Sunbird	Nectariniazeylonica	R	Com
201	Small Sunbird	Nectariniaminima	R	Com
202	Maroon breasted Sunbird	Nectarinialotenia	R	Com
203	Purple Sunbird	Nectariniaasiatica	R	Com
204	Little Spider hunter	Arachnotheralongirostra	R	L Com
46. Zosteropidae
205	White Eye	Zosteropspalpebrosus	RM	L Com
47. Ploceidae
Sub Family : Passerinae
206	House Sparrow	Passerdomesticus	R	Com
Sub Family: Ploceinae
207	Baya weaver bird	Ploceusphilippinus	R	Com
208	Balck breasted weaver bird	Ploceusbenghalensis	R	Com
209	Streaked weaver bird	Ploceusmanyar	R	L Com
Sub Family: Estrildinae
210	Red Munia	Estrildaamandava	R	Com
211	Green Munia	Estrildaformosa	R	Un Com
212	White throated Munia	Lonchuramalabarica	R	Com
213	White backed Munia	Lonchurastriata	R	Com
214	Spotted Munia	Lonchurapunctulata	R	Com
215	Black headed Munia	Lonchuramalacca	R	Com
48. Fringillidae
Sub Family: Carduelinae
216	Rose Finch	Carpodacuserythrinus	RM	Com
Sub Family: Emberizinae
217	House Striolated	Emberizastriolata	R	L Com
218	Crested Bunting	Emberizalathami	R	L Com
Status of the birds: WM= Winter migrant, Com= Common, R/LM= Resident with local movements, L Com=Locally common, R= Resident, Un Com= Un common, M= Migratory, V Com= Very common, R/LM/SM=Resident with local as well as summer movements.

External threats

About 8.0 Ha of the sanctuary area has been encroached. The tank is drained by the villagers during summer for agriculture and this disturbs the water bird habitation.

REFERENCES

1. Dayananda G.Y. (2009). Avifaunal diversity of Gudavi Bird Sanctuary, Sorab, Shimoga Karnataka. Our Nature 7:100-109.
2. Karnataka Forest Department, Management plan for Sharavathi Wildlife Sanctuary (2001-2006) Deputy Conservator of forests Wildlife division Shimoga.
3. Karnataka Forest Department, Management plan for Shettihalli Wildlife Sanctuary (2001-2006) Deputy Conservator of forests Wildlife division Shimoga.
4. Karnataka Forest Department, Management plan for Shettihalli Wildlife Sanctuary (2005-06 to 2014-15). Deputy Conservator of forests Wildlife division Shimoga
5. Karnataka Forest Department, Management plan for Gudavi Bird Sanctuary (2006-07 to 2015-16) Deputy Conservator of forests Wildlife division Shimoga.
6. Kumara, H.N.(2007) Impact of local hunting on abundance of large mammals in three protected areas of the Western Ghats, Karnataka. Technical report submitted to Rufford Maurice Laing Foundation, U.K.
7. Kumara, H.N. and Singh, M. (2005b). Disappearance of elephants in Uttara Kannada. Journal of  Bombay Natural History Society, 102:337
8. Nair, P.V and Gadgil, M (1978). The status and distribution of elephant population of Karnataka. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 75: 1000-1016.
9. Pramod Kumar M.P.M., Hosetti B.B., Poornesha H.C. and Raghavendra Gowda H.T. (2007). Butterflies of the Tiger-Lion Safari, Thyaverekoppa, Shimoga, Karnataka, Zoos print Journal 22(8):2805.
10. Sameer Ali, Rao.G.R, Divakar Mesta, Sreekantha, Vishnu D.Mukri, Subhashchandran M.D., Gururaja K.V., Joshi.N.V, and Ramachandra.T.V, 2007. Ecological Status of Sharavathi Wildlife Sanctuary Sahyadri Conservation series-1, ETR-19. Centre For Ecological Sciences,Indian Institute of Sciences, Bangalore.