Introduction

Study Area & Methodology

Result & Discussion

Conclusion

References

Study Area
The study area covered Karnataka and districts to analyse the energy trajectory of Karnataka.
Karnataka is the eighth largest state in India with a geographic area 191791 sq.km, and it accounts for nearly 5.83 percent of India’s total area (Figure 3). Karnataka state consists of 31 districts divided into 4 administrative divisions: Bengaluru, Belagavi, Kalburgi, and Mysuru. The state has a tropical monsoon-type climate and receives rainfall in the range of 50 cm to 350 cm annually. Karnataka is located in south-western region of India and falls between the latitudes 11.5º N to 18.5º N and 74̊ºE and 78.5̊ºE longitude. The population of Karnataka state is 71957278 as per the projected population of 2021. Over the past years, the Karnataka state has shown improvements in the education, agriculture, industries, and tourism sectors. The state is also called the Silicon Valley of Asia due to the embellishment in the information technology sector.

Fig. 3 Study Area
The energy trajectory of the Karnataka assessment involved (ⅰ) analysis of energy resource status in Karnataka (ⅱ) assessment of energy generation by the power plants. (ⅲ) supply-demand strategy in Karnataka state by calculating the per capita consumption in various sectors. (ⅳ) the bioresource availability in Karnataka by calculating the per capita biogas yield of each district as well as (ⅴ) analysing the future prospects of renewable energy by assessing the solar energy potential and wind energy potential of the districts in Karnataka. The energy resource status was analysed from annual reports of different energy corporations in the state. The per capita energy consumptions were calculated by referring previous studies on energy as well as based on the last census report (2011). Per capita transport fuel consumption was calculated based on the yearly data of vehicle registration in the state. The coal consumption in Karnataka was assessed by calculating the coal requirement in major thermal power plants on the basis of their specific coal consumption. The study also covers the analysis of the energy potential from bioresources in Karnataka by evaluating the biogas yield in each district for all livestock according to their breed and the analysis of the renewable energy potential in Karnataka by calculating the annual solar and wind potential of each district and mapping was done using Quantum-GIS software.
The Resource Status: Energy Supply in Karnataka
Karnataka uses both conventional as well as non-conventional energy sources. Since there is no coal or oil deposit in the state, hydroelectricity is used as the main commercial energy. Karnataka state relies on seaborne coal or on the coal supplied from other states like Telangana, Odisha and Jharkhand. The main coal fired thermal power plants in Karnataka are the Raichur Thermal Power Station (RTPS), consisting of 8 units, Bellary Thermal Power Station (BTPS) having 3 units, and Yermarus Thermal Power Station (YTPS) having 2 units. Nearly 52% of energy consumption in Karnataka is from non-commercial energy sources like that of fuelwood, animal residues like dung-cakes, agricultural and horticultural residues. Karnataka promotes the use of renewable energy to reduce emissions caused by the excessive use of non-renewable energy and wipe out the state's energy poverty. Pavagada Solar Park was commissioned in 2018 as a part of The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) also known as The National Solar Mission. The solar park was constructed in 13000 acres of land in Tumkur district, and it has a total energy generation capacity of 2000MW. The National Solar Mission was started in 2010. This project aimed to produce 175 GW of renewable energy by 2022 of which 100 GW of energy was generated from Solar power plants. Energy supply in Karnataka was assessed by collecting secondary from the Karnataka government websites. The annual reports from Karnataka Power Corporation Limited (KPCL), Karnataka Electricity Regulatory Commission, Karnataka Power Transmission Corporation Limited (KPTCL), Karnataka at a glance etc were collected, and the resource status was analysed to determine the sector-wise energy resource share in the state.
The energy generated in Karnataka state
The main types of power plants in Karnataka state include thermal, hydroelectric, wind, solar and diesel generation power plants. Karnataka has a surplus of renewable energy potential. The 2018 energy mix data showed that the state had nearly 46% installed generation capacity from thermal sources, 13% from hydroelectric, and 3% from nuclear power plants. The analysis of the progress in the installed capacity as well as the power generation was done for all the major power plants in Karnataka. Installed capacity is the maximum capability of a power plant to generate electricity over a period. It is important to calculate the installed capacity of power plants to determine the total cost required to construct the power plant and the power that can be generated from a plant. The economic survey of Karnataka gave the details on the installed capacity of the Karnataka Power Plants, and the annual reports of the economic survey of Karnataka from the year 2013 to 2019 were analysed to get the progress in the installed capacity of the power plants in the state. The energy generation from different power plants were analysed based on the annual reports collected from the respective departments. The Karnataka government established KPCL- Karnataka Power Corporation Limited in 1970 with an installed capacity of 746 MW which now progressed to 8738.38MW. KPCL power generation consisted of all the energy resources such as thermal, hydroelectric, wind, solar, diesel, and gas. Shivanasamudram power plant in Karnataka was the first hydroelectric power plant in Asia which was constructed over the Cauvery river bank in 1902.
The energy supply-demand in Karnataka
Energy demand is the amount of energy required in order to perform certain activities over a particular time period. It can be measured in terms of the total energy consumption and depends on the system's fuel types and end-use efficiencies. Management of energy demand is equally important since it regulates the consumer loads through different ways like that of incentive-based, energy saver plan, promoting use of renewables and providing public awareness. Forecasting the future energy demands aid to meet energy requirements and also monitors energy growth. This study analyses the sector-wise energy demand in Karnataka based on the per capita energy consumption in each district.
Per capita electricity consumption in Karnataka
Per capita, electricity consumption can be defined as the average amount of electricity consumed by a person over a particular period. In Karnataka, there are five Electricity Supply Companies (ESCOMS), namely (i) Bangalore Electricity Supply Company Limited (BESCOM) covering eight districts, (ii) Mangalore Electricity Supply Company Limited (MESCOM) covering four districts, (iii) Hubli Electricity Supply Company Limited (HESCOM) covering seven districts, (iv) Gulbarga Electricity Supply Company Limited with six districts (GESCOM) and (v) Chamundeshwari Electricity Supply Company Limited (CESC) supplies electricity in five districts.
Annual per capita electricity consumption of an ESCOM = metered consumption/population
Annual fuelwood consumption
More than fifty percent of the fuel consumption in Karnataka is derived mainly from non-commercial sources, and fuelwood plays a major role in fulfilling the energy requirements of the state. The annual fuelwood consumption is calculated using the per capita fuelwood consumed for cooking and water heating. The per capita fuelwood consumption of a district can be defined as the amount of fuel used by a person in that particular district. The per capita fuelwood consumption was analyzed based on the agroclimatic classification in the state. Karnataka is divided into ten agroclimatic zones based on the factors like temperature, rainfall, soil type, vegetation, etc.
Table 1. Agroclimatic zones in Karnataka

Sno	Agroclimatic zone	Districts
1	North-East Transition Zone (Bidar)	Bidar
2	North-eastern Dry Zone (Raichur)	Kalburgi
		Raichur
		Bellary
		Yadgir
		Koppal
3	Northern Dry Zone (Vijaya Pura)	Vijaya Pura
		Gadag
		Bagalkot
4	Central Dry Zone (Tumkur)	Tumkur
		Chitra Durga
		Davanagere
5	Eastern Dry Zone (Bengaluru)	Bangalore Rural,
		Bangalore Urban
		Kolar
		Ramanagaram
		Chickballapur
6	Southern Dry Zone (Mysuru)	Mysore
		Kodagu
		Chamarajanagar
		Mandya
7	Southern Transition Zone (Shivamogga)	Hassan
		Shivamogga
		Chickmagalur
8	North Transition Zone (Dharwad)	Dharwad
		Belgaum
		Haveri
9	Hill Zone (Uttara Kannada)	Uttara Kannada
10	Coastal Zone (Dakshin Kannada)	Dakshin Kannada
		Udupi

Table 1 shows the agroclimatic zone-wise approximate per capita fuelwood requirement for cooking and water heating purposes in each district of Karnataka state. This data was used in the study to calculate the district-wise annual fuelwood consumption of Karnataka as per the census data of the year 2011 and the projected census data of the year 2021.
The adult equivalent for the total population is calculated from the standard adult equivalent values. The standard adult equivalent is the standardized value that shows humans' food intake(energy) and its variability across age groups and sexes. The standard adult equivalent is taken as 1 for males, 0.85 for females, and 0.35 for children (Ramachandra et al., 2000).
Total fuel consumption in a year = Adult equivalent of total population x Total fuelwood per capita x Number of days in a year
Annual biogas yield = Annual dung yield x Per capita biogas yield
Transport fuel consumption in Karnataka state
The main type of fuels used in the present transportation sector in India is diesel and gasoline, even though the sector is far behind the adoption of new innovative technologies. The per capita fuel consumption is the amount of fuel consumed by a vehicle at a given period. The fuel consumption is calculated based on the approximate value of the annual distance traveled by a category of vehicle (Ramachandra & Shwetmala, 2012).
Transport fuel consumption for each vehicle type was calculated as follows:
Distance traveled annually by total number of vehicles in each category = Annual distance traveled by a vehicle in the respective category x Total number of registered vehicles
Total fuel consumption by total registered vehicles in each category = Distance traveled annually by total number of vehicles in each category ÷ mileage of that vehicle type
Table 2. The average mileage of vehicles

4.	Mileage
Buses - diesel	4.11
Omni buses - petrol	14.96
Two wheelers – petrol	60
Light Motor Vehicles(passengers) – petrol	18.4
Cars - diesel	32.5
cars - petrol	19.3
Taxi – diesel	19.7
Trucks & Lorries – diesel	8.45
Light Motor Vehicles(goods) – diesel	19.6
Trailers - diesel	3.54

4. Mileage Buses - diesel 4.11 Omni buses - petrol 14.96 Two wheelers – petrol 60 Light Motor Vehicles(passengers) – petrol 18.4 Cars - diesel 32.5 cars - petrol 19.3 Taxi – diesel 19.7 Trucks & Lorries – diesel 8.45 Light Motor Vehicles(goods) – diesel 19.6 Trailers - diesel 3.54
Table 2 gives the mileage of vehicles assigned based on the average mileage taken from different brands of a vehicle type for calculating the transport fuel consumption in Karnataka using the number of registered vehicles.
Coal consumption in Karnataka state
The Karnataka state has three major thermal power plants fuelled by coal: Raichur thermal power plant, Bellary thermal power plant, and Yermarus thermal power plant. This study calculated the total amount of coal consumed by these power plants in the year 2020. The Karnataka state experienced a coal shortage in recent years, and hence the Raichur thermal power plant, which has eight stations, has shown decreased energy generation in recent years. The coal shortage also forces the state to shift the energy generation to renewable sources such as solar.
Availability of bioresource - biogas potential
Biogas is a combustible gas used as a fuel produced by the anaerobic decomposition of organic matter, especially dungs and household organic wastes. Karnataka state has a good biogas potential due to its relatively high livestock population, which provides organic-rich residues throughout the year for biogas production. The solid content and moisture content of dung are estimated to be nearly 18% and 82%, respectively. The approximate dung yield of each livestock breed and its energy values were taken into account to calculate the state's biogas potential (Ramachandra et al., 2004) , as listed in table 3.
Table 3 Biogas yield and energy equivalents data

Dung yield, biogas yield and energy equivalents for livestock
Livestock type	Case	Dung yield (Kg/animal/day)	Per capita biogas yield (m3) per day	Energy Equivalent(kcal/kg)
Buffalo	High	15	0.042	5340
Buffalo	High	15	0.042
	Low	12	0.036
Cattle	High	7.5	0.042
	Low	3	0.036
Goat	High	0.1	0.042
	Low	0.1	0.036
Sheep	High	0.1	0.042
	Low	0.1	0.036

The study analyses division-wise district biogas potential of Karnataka state by calculating the yearly per capita biogas yield from livestock using the census data of livestock. There are four administrative divisions in Karnataka: Bengaluru division, Belagavi division, Kalburgi division, and Mysuru division. The calculation of breed-wise dung yield for each type of livestock in the state was done, thus giving the overall potential of biogas availability in Karnataka.
Annual dung yield for total population = Total number of cattle x Dung yield/day/animal x Number of days in a year
Annual biogas yield = Annual dung yield for total population x Per capita biogas yield per day
Renewable energy potential of Karnataka – Solar and Wind
The Karnataka state has a good renewable energy potential consisting of solar, wind, hydro, tidal, and co-generation projects. This section focuses on the prospects of solar and wind energy in Karnataka by calculating the annual wind energy potential of Karnataka district-wise using the data from previous research papers and the wind energy potential map of the state (Ramachandra et al, 2015) . The solar potential of Karnataka is calculated for each district using the average solar irradiation data, and the calculated annual solar potential of Karnataka was analysed in Q-GIS software to generate an annual solar potential map of Karnataka. The study also provides district-wise renewable energy generation and its achievements over the years.
Table 4. The data used for this study

Resource Status
Type	Data Source	Reference	Year
Resource share	Karnataka Electricity Regulatory Commission Annual Report 2019-2020	reference link	2019-2020

Energy Consumption
Type	Data Source	Reference	Year
Electricity	Annual reports of BESCOM, MESCOM, HESCOM, GESCOM, CESC	Collected from respective websites	2011
	Census data of Karnataka	reference link	2011
Fuelwood	Energy alternatives renewable energy and energy conservation technologies	T.V. Ramachandra, G. Kamakshi and B.V. Shruthi (2000)	2000
	Census data of Karnataka	reference link	2011
Transportation fuel	Decentralised carbon footprint analysis for opting climate change mitigation strategies in India	T.V. Ramachandra and Shwetmala (2012)	2012
	Vehicle registration report from Karnataka at a glance report	reference link	2018-2020
Coal	Annual reports of RTPS, BTPS, YTPS	reference link	2020

Bioresource - biogas potential
Type	Data Source	Reference	Year
Biogas	Bioresource status in Karnataka	T.V. Ramachandra, G. Kamakshi and B.V. Shruthi (2004)	2004
	Livestock Census data (Provisional)	reference link	2017

Renewable energy potential
Type	Data Source	Reference	Year
Wind	Wind Energy Potential Map	Generated using Q-GIS
Solar	Solar Energy Potential Map	Generated using Q-GIS