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CES Technical Report 133,   August 2013

Kerala State located in the south-western corner of India has a total geographic area of 38,863 km² (Figure 1). According to the 2001 census Kerala's population is 31,841,374 persons which included 15,468,614 males and 16,372,760 females (Figure 2.1). Although Kerala accounts for only 1 per cent of the total area of India, it contains about 3 per cent of the country's population. The population density of the state in 2001 is about 819 people per square kilometres (Figure 2.2), three times the national average. By year 2050 the population in Kerala is likely to grow to two times that figure i.e., 64 million.Kerala is one of the densest States in the country and it recorded a decadal population growth of + 9.42% (2,740,101 persons). Figure 3 illustrates district wise percentage share of population. Figure 4, illustrates changes in population during 1901 to 1991. There is bound to be considerable pressure on all natural resources in Kerala. Water resources are no exception. Concerted efforts to formulate proper plans for sustainable development of water resources in Kerala are therefore very important. Kerala State is situated in the humid tropics with unique geomorphology, geology, meteorology, landuse and cropping pattern.  These factors considerably influence the water resources and its management. Based on physiography, Kerala can be divided into three zones: (Figure 5) eastern highland (>75m), western lowland (<7.6m) and the central midland (7.5m-75m). The major formations of the State are: (i) crystalline rocks of Archaean age, (ii) sedimentary rocks of Tertiary age, (iii) latentes capping the crystallines and the sedimentary roctcs, and (iv) recent to subrecent sediments forming the low-lying areas and river valleys.

Figure 2.1: Districtwise population (Male and female), 2001

Figure 2.2: District wise population density

Figure 3: District wise population share (%)

Figure 4: Decadal population changes –India and Kerala

2.1 Physiography: The State is divided into three major physiographic units viz. The coastal plains, the midlands and the hill range (Figure 5). The coastal plains have an elevation of less than 6m. Whereas the elevation of the midland ranges from 6 to 80 m and that of the hill ranges is more than 80 m above mean sea level (amsl). Along the hill ranges two distinct plateau regions are seen, the important being the Wayanad plateau, which covers major part of Wayanad district, the general elevation of which is above 700 m-amsl.  The other one is the Munnar plateau, which is seen along the northern part of Idukki district with a general elevation of about 1000 m amsl

2.2 Climatology: Kerala occupies the portion of the subcontinent bounded by latitude 8º- 13ºN and longitude 75º- 77ºE. By physical features Kerala is divided into 3 natural divisions: (i) the low lands consisting of coastal areas, (ii) the middle land and (iii) the high land or the forest area of the Western Ghats on the eastern side. The extreme southern parts of the Ghats run along the eastern boarder of Kerala around 560 km in length. The climate of the state is typical tropical monsoon with seasonally excessive rainfall and hot summer. There are basically 4 seasons (i) March to May the summer or pre-monsoon season, (ii) June to September the south west monsoon season (iii) October to December north east monsoon and (iv) January-February the winter season.

2.3 Rainfall: The annual rainfall in the state varies from 3800 mm in the north to 1800 mm in the extreme south. The annual average rainfall for Kerala is 3070 mm and the departure from this in different years is shown (Table 1). The major rainfall season for Kerala is the south west monsoon period from June to September. The normal date of onset of south west monsoon is 1st June. During this period the average rainfall expected is 2130 mm (Table 1) which constitutes 70% of the annual rainfall. This also varies from north to south, the variation being 85% in the north to 54% in south. The district wise normal rainfall during south west monsoon period is given in the tables (2.21-2.24). The captions in the tables are derived from the names of the district. It can be seen that lowest rainfall during south west monsoon is being received in Thiruvananthapuram (TRV) district while the highest rainfall is in Wayanad (WYD) district. The annual highest average rainfall is in Kozhikode (KZK) district. The heavy falls during south west monsoon is due to the monsoon depressions which form over Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea. Next to the south west monsoon, the other principal rainy season is the northeast monsoon period which starts from October and ends with December. During this period Kerala receives 16% of its annual rainfall, i.e., 500 mm and there is a reversal in the order of rainfall activity from north to south. When the southern district receives around 600 mm of rain, only 350 mm of rain is received in the northern districts during this period. During the summer period, i.e. March, April and May, Kerala receives 40 cm of rain which is 13% of the annual rainfall. This is mostly due to thuderstorm activity which is purely a local phenomenon. In winter season, i.e., January-February, only 1% of the annual rainfall is received. This amounts to only 3 cm of rain. The state receives an annual rainfall of 307 cm which is much above the average rainfall (110 cm) for the entire country 86% of the total rain is being received during the two monsoon seasons, i.e., June to December. It may be noted that this rain water is the main source for the next 6 months, i.e., January-May for the different kinds of use in various activities. Any failure in the southwest monsoon or northeast monsoon will result in scarcity of water. This will also affect the availability of drinking water, electricity production and agriculture. All efforts should therefore be made to plan and manage the use of water with utmost care so that even when the monsoon fails, water scarcity is not felt. Collection of rain water during the rainy season both for drinking and other purposes would hence be most useful. In terms of water security, it may be that among the 35 Meteorological Sub-divisions in India, Kerala receives the maximum annual rainfall. Considering the area and population, around thirteen thousand liters of water is available per head per day out of which perhaps only one or two percent is sufficient for meeting the daily needs of a person. Thus water security in terms of quantity especially in the high rainfall areas of Kerala, is very good. This state is hence highly suitable for testing DRWH in terms of economic viability and water quality visa-vis other alternatives for at priding water.

Table 4: District wise rainfall of Kerala

	South-west	North-east	Pre-monsoon	ANNUAL
Thiruvananthapuram	96	53	39	192
Kollam	140	62	48	256
Pathanamthitta	178	68	61	313
Alapuzha	179	62	50	296
Kottayam	202	57	49	313
Idukki	232	59	45	338
Ernakulam	222	53	49	327
Thrissur	223	47	41	313
Palakad	162	41	27	233
Malapuram	209	48	33	291
Kozhikode	276	48	41	267
Wyanad	292	35	31	260
Kannur	279	35	32	347
Kasargod	296	32	29	358

Figure 5: Physiography of Kerala with district

Figure 6:  Rivers of Kerala

2.4 Rivers: There are 44 rivers flowing within Kerala, A location map showing the basin boundaries of these 44 rivers is given in Figure 6. Some general information on these 44 river basins in Kerala is given in Table 2. The geographic area of each of the 44 river basins in Kerala is shown in Figure 6. This information indicate that, of the 44 rivers flowing within Kerala, three are east flowing and the remaining 41 are west flowing and 13 river basins have a portion of their basin area falling also outside Kerala in the adjacent States of either Tamp Nadu (6) or Karnataka (7).   These 13 river basins can therefore have inter-state water issues to be tackled.   The basin area within Kerala in 10 of them are located downstream of the portion outside Kerala. In the case of the remaining three, the basin area within Kerala is upstream of the portion outside Kerala. The remaining 31 river basins fall fully within Kerala. 22 river basins (50 per cent of the total) have a basin area (within Kerala) less than 500 sq km2, with the smallest river basin (Ramapuram) having a basin area of only 52 sq km2   Only four river basins have a basin area (within Kerala) greater than 2,000 sq km2with the largest   river   basin (Periyar) having a   basin area of 5,384 sq km2. Figure 6, gives the geographical distribution of water in Kerala

Table 2: Details of Rivers of Kerala (Source:  Rajagopalan, 2002)

Sl.no.	Name of River	Area of River Basin			If a portion of the River Basin falls outside Kerala
		With in Kerala (in km2)	Outside Kerala (in km2)	Total (in km2)	Which portion is in Kerala	Adjacent State
1	Manjeshwar	95	0	95
2	Uppala	81	174	255	Downstream	Karnataka
3	Shiriya	305	297	602	Downstream	Karnataka
4	Mogral	140	0	140
5	Chandragiri	580	836	1416	Downstream	Karnataka
6	Chittari	155	0	155
7	Nileshwar	205	0	205
8	Kariangode	429	132	561	Downstream	Karnataka
9	Kawai	143	0	143
10	Peruvamba	300	0	300
11	Ramapuram	52	0	52
12	Kuppam	469	70	539	Downstream	Karnataka
13	Valappatanam	1326	456	1782	Downstream	Karnataka
14	Anjarakkandy	417	0	417
15	Tellichery	132	0	132
16	Mahe	404	0	404
17	Kuttiyadi	593	0	593
18	Korapuzha	644	0	644
19	Kallai	96	0	96
20	Chaliyar	2599	388	2987	Downstream	Tamil Nadu
21	Kadalundi	1162	0	1162
22	Tirur	117	0	117
23	Bharathapuzha	4480	1786	6266	Downstream	Tamil Nadu
24	Keecheri	420	0	420
25	Puzhakkal	244	0	244
26	Karuvannur	1054	0	1054
27	Chalakkudy	1455	300	1755	Downstream	Tamil Nadu
28	Periyar	5384	114	5498	Downstream	Tamil Nadu
29	Movathupuzha	1567	0	1567
30	Meenachil	1302	0	1302
31	Manimala	887	0	887
32	Pamba	2328	0	2328
33	Achenkovil	1519	0	1519
34	Pallikkal	234	0	234
35	Kallada	1735	0	1735
36	Ithikkara	672	0	672
37	Ayroor	76	0	76
38	Vamanapuram	717	0	717
39	Mammom	126	0	126
40	Karamana	745	0	745
41	Neyyar	528	0	528
42	Kabbini	1970	NA	NA	Upstream	Karnataka
43	Bhavani	592	NA	NA	Upstream	Tamil Nadu
44	Pambar	384	NA	NA	Upstream	Tamil Nadu

2.5 Forests:  Forests in Kerala cover 24%  of  geographical area (9,400 km² ) which include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470 km²), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100 km² and 100 km², respectively), and montane subtropical and temperate (shola) forests (highest elevations—100 km²). Distribution of forests is given in Figure 7. Eastern Kerala’s windward mountains shelter tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests, which are common in the Western Ghats. Lake Sasthamkotta and the Vembanad-Kol wetlands—are in Kerala (as well as 1455.4 km² of the vast Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve) are two of the world’s Ramsar Convention wetlands. Kerala's notable biodiversity is concentrated and protected in the Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve in the eastern hills. Almost a fourth of India's 10,000 plant species are found in the state. Among the almost 4,000 flowering plant species (1,272 of which are endemic to Kerala and 159 threatened) are 900 species of highly sought medicinal plants. Table 3 lists plants found in riparian vegetation (listed during March-May 2007, during water quality survey).

Figure 7: Forest cover in Kerala (district wise)

Table 3: List of plants found in the riparian vegetation, Kerala

Sl. No.	Species Name	Family	Distribution
1	Abrus precatorius	Fabaceae	Tropics
2	Acacia auriculiformis	Fabaceae	Native to Australia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea
3	Acacia catechu	Fabaceae	India, China and Indian Ocean areas
4	Acacia mangium	Fabaceae	Native to Asia, Australia
5	Acacia sinuata	Fabaceae	Indomalaysia, China
6	Acacia tora	Fabaceae	Paleotropics
7	Acanthephippium bicolor	Orchidaceae	South W. India
8	Achyranthus aspera	Acanthaceae	Pantropical
9	Acronychia pedunculata	Rutaceae	Indomalaysia
10	Acrostichium aureum	Pteridaceae	Tropical and Sub-tropical coasts
11	Actinodaphne sp.	Lauraceae
12	Adhotoda zeylanica	Acanthaceae	Indomalaysia
13	Aegiceras corniculatus	Myrsinaceae	South-east Asia and Northern Australia
14	Aegle marmelos	Rutaceae	Indomalaysia
15	Ageratum conyzoides	Asteraceae	Originally Neotropical, now Pantropical
16	Aglaia sp.	Meliaceae
17	Ailanthus excelsa	Simaroubaceae	India, Sri Lanka
18	Albizia lebbeck	Fabaceae	Paleotropics
19	Allophylus cobbe	Sapindaceae	South W. India, Sri Lanka, Burma
20	Alstonia scholaris	Apocynaceae	S. Asia through Malaysia to Australia and Melanesia
21	Alstonia sp.	Apocynaceae
22	Alternanthera sessilis	Amaranthaceae	Paleotropics
23	Alysicarpus vaginalis	Fabaceae	Paleotropics
24	Amaranthus spinosus	Amaranthaceae	Tropics
25	Amorphophalus bulbifer	Araceae	India, Burma
26	Anacardium occidentale	Anacardiaceae	A Native of America
27	Ananas comosus	Bromiliaceae	Native to Brazil and Paraguay
28	Anogeissus acuminata	Combretaceae	India, Sri Lanka
29	Antidesma menasu	Euphorbiaceae	Western Peninsular India
30	Aporusa lindleyana	Euphorbiaceae	Peninsular India, Sri Lanka
31	Ardisia solanacea	Myrsinaceae	Peninsular India
32	Arenga wightii	Arecaceae	South W. India
33	Arisaema leschenaultii	Araceae	South W. India
34	Artocarpus altilis	Moraceae	Malay Peninsula and Western Pacific Islands
35	Artocarpus gomezianus ssp.zeylanicus	Moraceae	South W. India, Sri Lanka
36	Artocarpus heterophyllus	Moraceae	Native to South W. India
37	Artocarpus hirsutus	Moraceae	South W. India
38	Asclepias curassavica	Asclepiadaceae	A Native of Tropical America
39	Asparagus racemosus var. racemosus	Liliaceae	Paleotropics
40	Atalantia wightii	Rutaceae	W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
41	Averrhoa bilimbi	Oxalidaceae	Native of Moluccas, distributed in South-east Asian countries
42	Averrhoa carambola	Oxalidaceae	Native to Sri Lanka, India and Indonesia
43	Avicennia marina	Avicenniaceae	East coast of Africa, Throughout south and south-east Asia,into Australia
44	Bambusa arundinacea	Poaceae	Throughout India
45	Barringtonia racemosa	Lecythidaceae	Native to Philippines
46	Bauhinia phoenicea	Fabaceae	Western Ghats
47	Bauhinia purpurea	Fabaceae	Native to South China and Southeastern Asia
48	Bauhinia racemosa	Fabaceae	Indomalaysia, China
49	Bauhinia variegata	Fabaceae	Southeastern Asia
50	Biophytum sensitivum	Oxalidaceae	Western peninsular India, Sri Lanka
51	Bischofia  javanica	Euphorbiaceae	Indomalaysia
52	Blyxa octandra	Hydrocharitaceae	Madagascar, Indomalaysia
53	Bombax ceiba	Bombacaceae	Indomalaysia
54	Borassus flabellifer	Arecaceae	Southern Asia, Southeast Asia
55	Boswellia serrata	Burseraceae	Central & North west India
56	Breynia sp.	Euphorbiaceae
57	Bridelia crenulata	Euphorbiaceae	Peninsular India
58	Buchanania lanzan	Anacardiaceae	India, Myanmar
59	Butea monosperma	Fabaceae	Indomalaya
60	Calamus sp.	Arecaceae
61	Calamus thwaitesii var. canaranus	Arecaceae	South W. India
62	Callicarpa tomentosa	Verbenaceae	South India
63	Calophyllum apetalum	Clusiaceae	Western Ghats
64	Calophyllum tomentosum	Clusiaceae	Paleoarctic
65	Calotropis gigantea	Asclepiadaceae	Throughout mush of Tropical Asia
66	Calycopteris floribunda	Combretaceae	Indomalaysia
67	Camelia sinensis	Theaceae	South and Southeast Asia
68	Canarium strictum	Burseraceae	Western Ghats
69	Canthium dicoccum var. dicoccum	Rubiaceae	South India, Myamnar
70	Capparis spinosa	Capparaceae	Native to Mediterrenean region
71	Carallia brachiata	Rhizophoraceae	Oriental to Australian
72	Careya arborea	Lecythidaceae	Himalayas to Sri Lanka
73	Carissa inermis	Apocynaceae	Peninsular India
74	Caryota urens	Arecaceae	Tropical Asia
75	Cassia auriculata	Fabaceae	Indomalaysia
76	Cassia fistula	Fabaceae	China, Indomalysia
77	Cassia occidentalis	Fabaceae	Tropics
78	Cassia tora	Fabaceae	Tropics
79	Cassine glauca	Celastraceae	Indomalaysia
80	Casuarina equisetifolia	Casuarinaceae	Native to Australia and Islands of Pacific
81	Ceiba pentandra	Bombacaceae	Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean, Northern south America and to the west Africa
82	Cerbera odollam	Apocynaceae	India and other parts of southern Asia
83	Chasalia sp.	Rubiaceae
84	Cinnamomum macrocarpum	Lauraceae	Western Ghats
85	Cinnamomum malabatrum	Lauraceae	Western Ghats
86	Cissampelos pareira var. hirsuta	Menispermaceae	Tropics
87	Clerodendrum viscosum	Verbenaceae	Indomalaysia
88	Cochlospermum religiosum	Cochlospermaceae	India
89	Cocos nucifera	Arecaceae	Polynesia
90	Colocasia esculenta	Araceae	Originating in tropical Asia but pantropically cultivated
91	Corypha umbraculifera	Arecaceae	Southern India, Sri Lanka
92	Crateva nurvala	Capparaceae	S. Asia, Indomalaysia
93	Crotalaria sp.	Fabaceae
94	Croton bonplandianum	Euphorbiaceae	Native of South America
95	Croton sp.	Euphorbiaceae
96	Cullenia exarillata	Bombacaceae	Western Ghats
97	Curculigo orchioides	Liliaceae	India, Java
98	Curcuma longa	Zingiberaceae	Tropical South Asia
99	Curcuma zedoaria	Zingiberaceae	Western Ghats
100	Cyathocalyx zeylanica	Annonaceae	India, Myamnar
101	Cyclea peltata	Menispermaceae	Western Ghats
102	Cyperus sp.	Cyperaceae
103	Dalbergia latifolia	Fabaceae	Indomalaysia
104	Dalbergia sisso	Fabaceae
105	Datura metel	Solanaceae	Paleotropics
106	Datura stramonium	Solanaceae	Introduced & naturalized
107	Delonix regia	Fabaceae	Tropical & Sub-tropical
108	Dendrocalamus strictus	Poaceae	Dry hills of India, Burma
109	Derris trifoliata	Fabaceae	Eastern Africa, Madagascar, Mascarene Islands, South and South-East Asia including the whole of Malesia, the Pacific and Australia.
110	Dilienia indica	Dilleniaceae	India
111	Dilienia pentagyna	Dilleniaceae	China to Indomalaysia
112	Dimorphocalyx lawianus	Euphorbiaceae	Western Ghats
113	Dioscorea oppositifolia	Dioscoriaceae	India, Sri Lanka
114	Dioscorea sp.	Dioscoreaceae
115	Diospyros candolleana	Ebenaceae	Western Ghats
116	Diospyros crumenata	Ebenaceae	Western Ghats, Sri Lanka
117	Diospyros pruriens	Ebenaceae	Western Ghats
118	Diospyros sp. 1	Ebenaceae
119	Diospyros sp. 2	Ebenaceae
120	Dipterocarpus indicus	Dipterocarpaceae	Western Ghats
121	Dracena terniflora	Agavaceae	India, S E Asia
122	Drypetes roxburghii	Euphorbiaceae	Pantropical
123	Ecbolium viride	Acanthaceae	India, Sri Lanka
124	Eichhornia crassipes	Pontederiaceae	Native to Tropical America
125	Elaeocarpus serratus	Elaeocarpaceae	India
126	Elaeocarpus sp.	Elaeocarpaceae
127	Elaeocarpus tuberculatus	Elaeocarpaceae	Indomalaysia
128	Elettaria cardamomum	Zingiberaceae	South W. India, Sri Lanka
129	Emblica officinalis	Euphorbiaceae	Paleotropics
130	Emilia sonchifolia	Asteraceae	Pantropical
131	Ensete superbum	Musaceae	South W. India
132	Entada pursaetha	Fabaceae	Western India,
133	Eriocaulon sp.1	Eriocaulaceae
134	Eriocaulon sp.2	Eriocaulaceae
135	Eriocaulon xeranthemum	Eriocaulaceae	Tropical Africa, Oriental-India
136	Erythrina stricta	Fabaceae	South W. India
137	Eucalyptus sp.	Myrtaceae
138	Euodia lunu-ankenda	Rutaceae	India to Continental South E. Asia
139	Euonymus crenulatus	Celastraceae	Western Ghats
140	Eupatorium odoratum	Asteraceae	Neotropic
141	Euphorbia pulcherrima	Euphorbiaceae	Pacific coast of Mexico
142	Euphorbia rosea	Euphorbiaceae	A Native of Africa
143	Euphorbia thymifolia	Euphorbiaceae	Tropics
144	Excoecaria agallocha	Euphorbiaceae	Old World Tropics
145	Ficus arnottiana	Moraceae	South India, Sri Lanka
146	Ficus benghalensis	Moraceae	India, Pakistan
147	Ficus hispida	Moraceae	Indomalaysia
148	Ficus racemosa	Moraceae	Indomalaysia
149	Ficus sp.	Moraceae
150	Ficus tsjahela	Moraceae	South India, Sri Lanka
151	Fimbristylis sp.	Cyperaceae
152	Flacourtia indica	Flacourtiaceae	Pantropical
153	Flacourtia montana	Flacourtiaceae	Western Ghats
154	Garcinia indica	Clusiaceae	W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
155	Garcinia morella	Clusiaceae	Indomalaysia
156	Garcinia sp.	Clusiaceae
157	Gardenia latifolia	Rubiaceae	India
158	Glochidion sp.1	Euphorbiaceae
159	Glochidion sp.2	Euphorbiaceae
160	Gloriosa superba	Liliaceae	Paleotropics
161	Glycosmis pentaphylla	Rutaceae	S. India, Sri Lanka
162	Gmelina arborea	Verbenaceae	Indomalaysia
163	Gnetum scandens	Gnetaceae	South India
164	Gnidia glauca	Thymeleaceae	Palaeotropics
165	Grangea madaraspatna	Asteraceae	Paleotropics
166	Grewia microcos	Tiliaceae	Asia
167	Grewia sp.	Tiliaceae
168	Grewia tiliifolia	Tiliaceae	Tropical Africa, Tropical
169	Helicteres isora	Sterculiaceae	Indomalaysia
170	Heliotropium indicum	Boraginaceae	Pantropical
171	Hemidesmus indicus	Asclepiadaceae	India, Sri Lanka
172	Hevea braziliensis	Euphorbiaceae	Native to Brazil
173	Hibiscus rosa-sinensis	Malvaceae	East Asia
174	Hibiscus tiliaceus	Malvaceae	Eastern and Northern Australia, Oceania and South-East Asia
175	Holigarna arnottiana	Anacardiaceae	Western Ghats
176	Holigarna grahamii	Anacardiaceae	Western Ghats
177	Homonoia riparia	Euphorbiaceae	Indomalaysia
178	Hopea parviflora	Dipterocarpaceae	Western Ghats
179	Hopea ponga	Dipterocarpaceae	Western Ghats
180	Hydnocarpus pentandra	Flacourtiaceae	Western Ghats
181	Hydnocarpus sp.	Flacourtiaceae
182	Hydrilla verticillata	Hydrocharitaceae	Native to Africa
183	Hygrophila auriculata	Acanthaceae	India, Sri Lanka
184	Ipomaea eriocarpa	Malvaceae	Paleotropics
185	Ipomaea sp.1	Malvaceae
186	Ipomoea sp.2	Convolvulaceae
187	Ipsea malabarica	Orchidaceae	Western Ghats
188	Ixora brachiata	Rubiaceae	Western Ghats
189	Ixora coccinea	Rubiaceae	W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
190	Jasminum sp.	Oleaceae
191	Jatropha curcas	Euphorbiaceae	Native of  Tropical America
192	Jatropha gossypifolia	Euphorbiaceae	Native of New World Tropics
193	Knema attenuata	Myristicaceae	Western Ghats
194	Kydia calycina	Malvaceae	India, Burma
195	Lagenandra sp.	Araceae
196	Lagerstroemia microcarpa	Lythraceae	Western Ghats
197	Lagerstroemia parviflora	Lythraceae	W. Ghats, Myanmar
198	Lagerstroemia reginae	Lythraceae	India, Burma, New Guinea
199	Lannea coromandalica	Anacardiaceae	India, Sri Lanka
200	Lantana camara	Verbenaceae	Introduced from Tropical America
201	Leea indica	Leeaceae	India, China to Australia
202	Leea sp.	Leeaceae
203	Lindernia sp.	Scrophulariaceae
204	Litsea foribunda	Lauraceae	Western Ghats
205	Litsea sp.	Lauraceae
206	Lophopetalum wightianum	Celastraceae	Indomalaysia
207	Ludwigia perennis	Onagraceae	East Africa, Iran, Indomalaysia
208	Ludwigia sp.	Onagraceae
209	Macaranga peltata	Euphorbiaceae	Peninsular India, Sri Lanka
210	Madhuca longifolia var. longifolia	Sapotaceae	India, Myanmar
211	Madhuca neriifolia	Sapotaceae	India, Sri Lanka
212	Mallotus philippensis	Euphorbiaceae	China, Indomalaysia to Australia
213	Mallotus sp.	Euphorbiaceae
214	Mangifera indica	Anacardiaceae	Western Ghats
215	Manihot glaziovii	Euphorbiaceae	Native to Brazil
216	Mastixia arborea ssp. arborea	Cornaceae	Western Ghats
217	Meiogyne pannosa	Annonaceae	South India
218	Melastoma malabathricum	Melastomataceae	India
219	Memecylon sp.	Melastometaceae
220	Memecylon umbellatum	Melastometaceae	W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
221	Mesua ferrea	Clusiaceae	Indomalaysia
222	Michelia champaca	Magnoliaceae	South and Southeast Asia
223	Mimusops elengi	Sapotaceae	Indomalaysia
224	Moringa pterygosperma	Moringaceae	Tropical Asia
225	Murdannia sp.	Commelinaceae
226	Murraya koenigii	Rutaceae	India, Sri Lanka
227	Mussaenda bellila	Rubiaceae	Peninsular India
228	Myristica dactyloides	Myristicaceae	South India, Sri Lanka
229	Myristica fragrans	Myristicaceae	Tropical southeast Asia, Australia
230	Naravelia zeylanica	Ranunculaceae	Himalayas to Sri Lanka
231	Naregamia alata	Meliaceae	India, Angola
232	Neolamarckia cadamba	Rubiaceae	India, New Guinea
233	Nervilia prainiana	Orchidaceae	India
234	Nothopegia colebrookeana	Anacardiaceae	Western Ghats
235	Nymphea nouchali	Nymphaeaceae	Tropics
236	Nymphoides indicum	Menyanthaceae	Indomalaysia
237	Ochlandra scriptoria	Poaceae	South W. India
238	Oldenlandia sp.	Rubiaceae
239	Olea dioica	Oleaceae	N E India, S W India
240	Ophiorrhiza hirsutula	Rubiaceae	Western Ghats
241	Palaquium ellipticum	Sapotaceae	Western Ghats
242	Pandanus sp.	Pandanaceae
243	Paramignya monophylla	Rutaceae	India, Burma, Sri Lanka
244	Parthenium hysterophorus	Asteraceae	Native to Tropical America
245	Passiflora foetida	Passifloraceae	Introduced from Tropical America
246	Pavetta honenackeri	Rubiaceae	Western Ghats
247	Peperomia pellucida	Piperaceae	South America
248	Persea macrantha	Lauraceae	South India, Sri Lanka
249	Phoenix sylvestris	Poaceae	Throughout India and Burma
250	Phyllanthus fraternus	Euphorbiaceae	Tropics except Australia
251	Phyllanthus urinaria	Euphorbiaceae	Tropics
252	Piper sp.	Piperaceae
253	Pistia stratiotes	Araceae	Pantropics
254	Pithecellobium monadelphum	Fabaceae	South W. India, E. Himalayas
255	Pittosporum dasycaulon	Pittosporaceae	South W. India
256	Polyalthia fragrans	Annonaceae	Western Ghats
257	Polyalthia longifolia	Annonaceae	India, Sri Lanka
258	Polygonum barbatum	Polygonaceae	Paleotropics
259	Polygonum glabrum	Polygonaceae	Pantropics
260	Polygonum sp.	Polygonaceae
261	Pongamia pinnata	Fabaceae	Throughout Asia
262	Pothos scandens	Araceae	India, Sri Lanka,
263	Premna tomentosa	Verbenaceae	South India, Sri Lanka
264	Psidium guajava	Myrtaceae	Native to Brazil
265	Psychotria curviflora	Rubiaceae	Western Ghats
266	Psychotria sp.	Rubiaceae
267	Psychotria truncata	Rubiaceae	Western Ghats
268	Pterocarpus marsupium	Fabaceae	W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
269	Pterospermum acerifolium	Sterculiaceae	Indomalaysia
270	Pterospermum diversifolium	Sterculiaceae	W. Ghats, Java, Philippines, Malaysia
271	Quisqualis indica	Combretaceae	Africa to southeast Asia, Malesia, China and Taiwan
272	Randia dumetorum	Rubiaceae	Paleotropics
273	Rauvolfia serpentina	Apocynaceae	India, Sri Lanka, Java
274	Rhaphidophora laciniata	Araceae	South W. India, Sri Lanka
275	Ricinus communis	Euphorbiaceae	Indigenous to Africa, cultivated in Tropics
276	Rubia cordifolia	Rubiaceae	Palaeotropics
277	Rungia pectinata	Acanthaceae	India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar
278	Saccharum sp.	Poaceae
279	Salivinia molesta	Saliviniaceae	Native to South America
280	Santalum album	Santalaceae	South India
281	Saraca asoca	Fabaceae	Indomalaysia
282	Schleichera oleosa	Sapindaceae	Indomalaysia
283	Schumannianthus virgatus	Marantaceae	S. India, Sri Lanka
284	Scoparia dulcis	Scrophulariaceae	Neotropics
285	Semecarpus anacardium	Anacardiaceae	S. Asia, N. Australia
286	Sida acuta	Malvaceae	Pantropical
287	Sida cordifolia	Malvaceae	Pantropical
288	Sida rhombifolia	Malvaceae	Indomalaysia
289	Solanum sp.	Solanaceae
290	Spathodea companulata	Bignoniaceae	Native to West Kenya, Uganda
291	Spermacoce articularis	Rubiaceae	Indomalaysia
292	Sphaeranthus indicus	Asteraceae	Africa to Australia
293	Spondias pinnata	Anacardiaceae	Tropical Asia
294	Stachytarpheta urticifolia	Verbenaceae	Tropical America
295	Sterculia guttata	Sterculiaceae	W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
296	Steriospermum personatum	Bignoniaceae	India, Myanmar,
297	Strychnos nuxvomica	Loganiaceae	Peninsular India
298	Swietenia mahogani	Meliaceae	Neotropics
299	Symplocos macrocarpa ssp. macrocarpa	Symplocaceae	Western Ghats
300	Symplocos racemosa	Symplocaceae	Western Ghats
301	Syzygium caryophyllatum	Myrtaceae	W Ghats, Sri Lanka
302	Syzygium cumini	Myrtaceae	Indomalaysia
303	Syzygium hemisphericum	Myrtaceae	Western Ghats
304	Syzygium jambos	Myrtaceae	Southeast Asia
305	Syzygium lanceolatum	Myrtaceae	Western Ghats
306	Syzygium sp.	Myrtaceae
307	Tabernaemontana heyneana	Apocynaceae	Western Ghats
308	Tamarindus indica	Fabaceae	Tropics, Native to Eastern Africa including parts of the Madagascar
309	Tarenna sp.	Rubiaceae
310	Tectona grandis	Verbenaceae	Indomalaysia
311	Terminalia alata	Combretaceae	India
312	Terminalia arjuna	Combretaceae	India, Sri Lanka
313	Terminalia bellerica	Combretaceae	Indomalaysia
314	Terminalia catappa	Combretaceae	India or Malaya peninsula or New Guinea
315	Terminalia paniculata	Combretaceae	South W. India
316	Themeda tremula	Poaceae	S. India, Sri Lanka
317	Themeda triandra	Poaceae	Pantropics
318	Thottea siliquosa	Aristolochiaceae	W. Ghats, Sri Lanka
319	Toddalia asiatica var. obtusifolia	Rutaceae	South India
320	Trema orientalis	Ulmaceae	Indomalaysia
321	Trewia nudiflora	Euphorbiaceae	Indomalaysia
322	Tridax procumbens	Asteraceae	From S. America, now Pantropical
323	Triumfetta rhomboidea	Tiliaceae	Tropical Africa, Asia
324	Typhonium sp.	Araceae
325	Urena lobata	Malvaceae	Pantropical
326	Uvaria sp.	Annonaceae
327	Vateria indica	Dipterocarpaceae	South W. India
328	Vepris bilocularis	Rutaceae	Western Ghats
329	Vernonia arborea	Asteraceae	Paleotropics
330	Vitex altissima	Verbenaceae	South India
331	Vitex leucoxylon	Verbenaceae	South W. India, Sri Lanka
332	Vitex negundo	Verbenaceae	Asia
333	Wendlandia thyrsoidea	Rubiaceae	S. India, Sri Lanka
334	Xylia xylocarpa	Fabaceae	Indomalaysia
335	Zanthoxylum rhetsa	Rutaceae	Indomalaysia
336	Zingiber roseum	Zingiberaceae	Western Ghats
337	Zizyphus oenoplia	Rhamnaceae	Pantropics
338	Zizyphus rugosa	Rhamnaceae	India, Sri Lanka

2.6  Fauna:  Kerala's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: 102 species of mammals (56 of which are endemic), 476 species of birds, 202 species of freshwater fishes, 169 species of reptiles (139 of them endemic), and 89 species of amphibians (86 endemic).  Table 5.1 and 5.2 lists butterflies and birds noticed during the field work. Table 5.3 provides the list of fish species found in hill streams during water quality survey (during March-May 2007)

Table 5.1: Butterflies found in the riparian vegetation, Kerala State.

Family: Papilionidae

Papilionidae: Papilioninae: Troidini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
1	Troides minos Cramer	Southern Birdwing (WG)
2	Pachliopta aristolochiae Fabricius	Common Rose
*3	Pachliopta hector L.,	Crimson Rose (PI&SL)

Papilionidae: Papilioninae: Leptocircini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
4	Graphium sarpedon L.,	Common Bluebottle
5	Graphium doson C&R Felder	Common Jay
6	Graphium agamemnon L.,	Tailed Jay
7	Graphium nomius Esper	Spot Sword Tail
8	Graphium antiphates Cramer	Fivebar Swordtail

Papilionidae: Papilioninae: Papilioninii

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
9	Papilio clytia L.,	Common Mime
10	Papilio demoleus L.,	Lime Butterfly
11	Papilio dravidarum Wood-Mason	Malabar Raven (WG)
12	Papilio helenus L.,	Red Helen
13	Papilio polytes L.,	Common Mormon
14	Papilio polymnestor Cramer	Blue Mormon (PI&SL)

Family: Pieridae

Pieridae: Coliadinae: Coliadini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
1	Catopsilia pomona Fabricius	Common Emigrant
2	Eurema brigitta Cramer	Small Grass Yellow

Pieridae: Pierinae: Pierini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
3	Delias eucharis Drury	Common Jezebel (PI & SL)
4	Leptosia nina Fabricius	Psyche
5	Cepora nerissa Fabricius	Common Gull
6	Appias albina Boisduval	Common Albatross
7	Appias lyncida Cramer	Chocolate Albatross
8	Ixias pyrene L.,	Yellow Orange Tip

Pieridae: Pierinae: Euchlocini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
9	Pareronia valeria Cramer	Common Wanderer
10	Pareronia ceylanica C&R Felder	Dark Wanderer (PI&SL)
11	Hebomoea glaucippe L.,	Great Orange Tip

Family: Nymphalidae

Nymphalidae: Satyrinae: Melanitini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
1	Melanitis leda L.,	Common Evening Brown

Nymphalidae: Satyrinae: Elymniini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
2	Elymnias hypermenstra L.,	Common Palmfly
3	Lethe europa	Bamboo Tree Brown
4	Mycalesis anaxias Hewitson	White-bar Bushbrown
5	Mycalesis perseus Fabricius	Common Bushbrown
6	Mycalesis patnia Moore	Glad-eye Bushbrown (PI&SL)
7	Orsotrioena medus Fabricius	The Nigger
8	Zipoetis saitis	Tamil Catseye (WG)

Nymphalidae: Satyrinae: Satyrini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
9	Ypthima asterope Klug	Common Three-ring
10	Ypthima sp.	Ring

Nymphalidae: Charaxinae: Charaxini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
11	Polyura athamas Drury	Common Nawab

Nymphalidae: Heliconiinae: Acraeini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
12	Acraea violae Fabricius	Tawny Coster

Nymphalidae: Heliconiinae: Heliconiini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
13	Cethosia nietneri C&R Felder	Tamil Lacewing (PI&SL)
14	Vindula erota Fabricius	Cruiser

Nymphalidae: Heliconiinae: Argynnini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
15	Cupha erymanthis Drury	Rustic
16	Phalanta phalantha Drury	Common Leopard
17	Cirrochroa thais Fabricius	Tamil Yeoman (PI&SL)

Nymphalidae: Limenitinae: Neptini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
18	Neptis hylas Moore	Common Sailer
19	Pantoporia hordonia Stoll	Common Lascar

Nymphalidae: Limenitinae: Limetini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
20	Athyma ranga Moore	Blackvein Sergeant
21	Limenitis procris Cramer	Commander

Nymphalidae: Limenitinae: Parthenini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
22	Parthenos sylvia Cramer	Clipper

Nymphalidae: Limenitinae: Euthaliinii

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
23	Tanaecia lepidea Butler	Grey Count
24	Euthalia aconthea Cramer	Common Baron
25	Dolpha evelina Stoll	Red-spot Duke

Nymphalidae: Limenitinae: Biblini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
26	Ariadne merione Cramer	Common Castor

Nymphalidae: Limenitinae: Marpesiini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
27	Cyrestis thyodamas	Map

Nymphalidae: Nymphalinae: Nymphalini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
28	Junonia lemonias L.,	Lemon Pansy
29	Junonia almana L.,	Peacock Pansy
30	Junonia atlites L.,	Grey Pansy
31	Junonia iphita Cramer	Chocolate Pansy
32	Cynthia cardui L.,	Painted Lady
33	Hypolimnas bolina L.,	Great Eggfly
*34	Hypolimnas misippus L.,	Danaid Eggfly (PI&SL)
35	Kallima horsfieldi Kollar	South Indian Blue Oak Leaf (WG)

Nymphalidae: Danainae: Danaini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
36	Parantica aglea Stoll	Glassy Blue Tiger
37	Tirumala limniace Cramer	Blue Tiger
38	Danaus chrysippus L.,	Plain Tiger

Nymphalidae: Danainae: Euploeini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
39	Euploea core Cramer	Common Indian Crow
40	Idea malabarica Moore	Malabar Tree Nymph (WG)

Family: Lycaenidae

Lycaenidae: Riodininae: Riodinini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
1	Abisara echerius Stoll	Plum Judy

Lycaenidae: Polymmatinae: Polymmatini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
2	Castalius rosimon Fabricius	Common Pierrot
3	Caleta caleta Hewitson	Angled Pierrot
4	Everes lacturnus Godart	Indian Cupid
5	Actolepis puspa Horsfield	Common Hedge Blue
6	Neopithecops zalmora Butler	Quaker
7	Pseudozizeeria maha Kollar	Pale Grass Blue
8	Zizula hylax Fabricius	Tiny  Grass Blue
9	Freyeria trochylus Freyer	Grass Jewel
10	Lampides boeticus L.,	Pea Blue
11	Jamides bochus Cramer	Dark Cerulean
12	Jamides celeno Cramer	Common Cerulean
13	Nacaduba hermus	Pale-4 line Blue
14	Talicada nyseus Guerin-Meneville	Red Pierrot

Lycaenidae: Theclinae: Arhopalini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
15	Arhopala amantes Hewitson	Western Centaur Oakblue
16	Thaduka multicaudata Moore	Many-tailed Oakblue

Lycaenidae: Theclinae: Loxurini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
17	Loxura atymnus	Yamfly

Lycaenidae: Theclinae: Horagini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
18	Rathinda amor	Monkey Puzzle

Lycaenidae: Theclinae: Hypolycaenini

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
19	Zeltus amasa	Fluffy tit

Lycaenidae: Curetinae

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
20	Curetis thetis	Indian Sunbeam (PI&SL)

Family: Hesperiidae

Hesperiidae: Coeliadinae

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
1	Hasora chromus Cramer	Common Banded Awl

Hesperiidae: Pyrginae

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
2	Celaenorrhinus leucocera Kollar	Common Spotted Flat
3	Tagiades gana Moore	Immaculate or Suffused Snow Flat
4	Pseudocoladenia dan Fabricius	Fulvous Pied Flat
5	Odontoptilum angulatum C&R Felder	Chestnut or Banded Angle
6	Spialia galba Fabricius	Indian Grizzled Skipper

Hesperiidae: Hesperiinae

Sl.No.	Species	Common Name
7	Notocrypta paralysos Wood-Mason & de Niceville	Common Banded Demon
8	Notocrypta curvifascia C & R Felder	Restricted Demon
9	Udaspes folus Cramer	Grass Demon
10	Taractrocera maevius Fabricius	Common Grass Dart
11	Talicota colon Fabricius	Pale Palm Dart

Note: * indicates Endangered species (Wildlife Protection Act, 1972)

WG – Western Ghats endemic
PI&SL – Endemic to Peninsular India and Sri Lanka.

Table 5.2: Birds found in the riparian vegetation, Kerala

Sl.No.	Common Name	Scientific Name	River Source
1	Ashy Swallow-Shrike	Artamus fuscus	Pamba river (Aratakadavu/Sabarimala)
2	Ashy Wren-Warbler	Prinia socialis	Vambanad Lake (Kuppapuram)
3	Asian Koel	Eudynamys scolopacea	Neyyar river (Neyyar dam), Karamana river (Tiruvallam, Anekkayathumoola), Achankovil river (Kallarakadavu), Changanassery canal
4	Baya Weaver	Ploceus philippinus	Vambanad Lake (Kuppapuram)
5	Black Bird	Turdus merula	Hill stream (8th Mile Munnar)
6	Black Drongo	Dicrurus macrocercus	Pamba river (Chenkulathakavu), Manimala river (Keecherivalkadavu), Kayamkulam Lake
7	Black-bellied Tern	Sterna acuticauda	Penavoorkudithodu (Kuttampuzha)
8	Black-shouldered Kite	Elanus caeruleus	Vambanad Lake (Kuppapuram)
9	Blue Rock Pigeon	Columba livia	Niramankara, Pallikkal river (Malumelkadavu), Mukkadavu, Pamba river (Athikayam)
10	Blyth's Reed Warbler	Acrocephalus stentoreus	Periyar Reservoir (Thekkady)
11	Brahminy Kite	Haliastur indus	Ithikara river (Chenkulam), Sasthmkotta Lake, Kayamkulam Lake, Malampuzha dam (Palakkad)
12	Cattle Egret	Bubulcus ibis	Neyyar river (Kallikadu), Sasthmkotta Lake, Kallar river (Vadaserikara), Achankovil river (Pandalam), Koodathaipuzha (Koodathai)
13	Chestnut-headed Bee-eater	Merops leschenaulti	Neyyar river (Kallikadu), Pamba river (Athikayam), Achankovil river (Pandalam), Manimala river (Vallamkulam)
14	Common Sandpiper	Acitis hypoleucos	Kayamkulam Lake
15	Common Swallow	Hirundo rustica	Manimala river (Vallamkulam)
16	Creasted Serpent Eagle	Spilornis cheela	Azhuta river (Azhuta), Muthappankolli (Muthanga Wildlife Sanctuary), Sairandri (Silent valley National Park)
17	Curlew	Numenius arquata	Kappkadavu beach
18	Curlew Sandpiper	Calidris ferruginea	Kappkadavu beach
19	Darter	Anhinga melanogaster	Kallada river (Pidavoor), Kumarakum wetland, Changanassery canal, Periyar reservoir (Thekkady)
20	Fairy Bluebird	Irena puella	Pamba river (Trivani/Sabarimala), Muthirapuzha (Munnar), Hill stream (8th Mile Munnar), Kaliyar aar (Thommankuthu falls)
21	Golden Oriole	Oriolus oriolus	Manimala river (Keecherivalkadavu), Bhavani river (Mukkali)
22	Greater Coucal	Centropus sinensis	Neyyar river (Neyyattinkara), Chaliyar river (Koolimadu)
23	Grey Heron	Ardea cinerea	Kayamkulam Lake
24	Grey Junglefowl	Gallus sonneratii	Achankovil river (Naduvathumulikadavu), Periyar reservoir (Thekkady)
25	*Grey-breasted or Jerdon's Laughingthrush	Garrulax jerdoni	Hill stream (8th Mile Munnar)
26	Gull-billed Tern	Gelochelidon nilotica	Kumarakum wetland, Confluence of Panpa & Achankovil river (Veeyapuram), Kayamkulam Lake
27	Hill Myna	Gracula indica	Periyar river (Vallakadavu), Sholayar river (Perumpara estate, Malakkapara)
28	Hoopoe	Upupa epops	Nullathanniaar (Nullathanni, Munnar)
29	House Crow	Corvus splendens	Neyyar river (Neyyattinkara, Kallikadu, Neyyar dam), Niramankara, Karamana river (Anekkayathumoola)
30	House Martin	Delichon urbica	Kallada river (Neduvennorkadavu)
31	House Swift	Apus affinis	Neyyar river (Kallikadu), Karamana river (Anekkayathumoola)
32	Indian Myna	Acridotheres tristis	Neyyar river (Neyyattinkara), Niramankara, Vamanapuram river (Avanavancheri), Ithikara river (Chenkulam), Azhuta river (Pampa valley), Manimala river (Kulathurmuzhi), Minachil river (Poovathummuddu), Periyar river (Vallakadavu, Thekkady), Nullathanniaar (Nullathanni, Munnar), Malampuzha dam (Palakkad), Muthappankolli (Muthanga Wildlife Sanctuary)
33	Indian Robin	Saxicoloides fulicata	Hill stream (8th Mile Munnar)
34	Indian Shag	Phalacrocorax fuscicollis	Periyar reservoir (Thekkady)
35	Indian Treepie	Dendrocitta vagabunda	Achankovil river (Naduvathumulikadavu), Pamba river (Athikayam), Malampuzha dam (Palakkad), Muthappankolli (Muthanga Wildlife Sanctuary)
36	Indina Peafowl	Pavo cristatus	Muthappankolli (Muthanga Wildlife Sanctuary)
37	Jungle Babbler	Turdoides striatus	Achankovil river (Naduvathumulikadavu)
38	Jungle Crow	Corvus macrorhynchos	Manimala river (Kulathurmuzhi)
39	Jungle Owlet	Glaucidium radiatum	Achankovil river (Naduvathumulikadavu)
40	Large Cormorant	Phalacrocorax carbo	Vambanad Lake (Kuppapuram), Periyar reservoir (Thekkady)
41	Large Pied Wagtail	Motacilla maderaspatensis	Mukkadavu, Pamba river (Trivani/Sabarimala)
42	Large Whistling-Duck	Dendrocygna bicolor	Penavoorkudithodu (Kuttampuzha)
43	Lesser Golden-backed Woodpecker	Dinopium benghalense	Manimala river (Vallamkulam)
44	Little Cormorant	Phalacrocorax niger	Pamba river (Trivani/Sabarimala), Manimala river (Vallamkulam, Kulathurmuzhi), Periyar reservoir (Thekkady), Confluence of Panpa & Achankovil river (Veeyapuram), Vambanad Lake (Kuppapuram), Confluence of Thodupuzha & Kaliyar river (Puzhakarakavu), Kcheripuzha (Cherananllur), Bharathapuzha (Naripparambu), Thamarakulam Lake
45	Little Egret	Egretta garzetta	Vellayani Lake, Kallada river (Neduvennorkadavu), Changanassery canal, Periyar reservoir (Thekkady), Vambanad Lake (Kuppapuram)
46	Little Grebe	Tachybaptus ruficollis	Periyar reservoir (Thekkady)
47	Magpie Robin	Copsychus saularis	Ithikara river (Chenkulam), Achankovil river (Kallarakadvu), Manimala river (Keecherivalkadavu), Nullathanniaar (Nullathanni, Munnar), Hill stream (8th Mile Munnar), Vambanad Lake (Kuppapuram)
48	Malabar Pied Hornbill	Anthracocerous coronatus	Periyar reservoir (Thekkady)
49	*Malabar Whistling Thrush	Myiophonus horsfieldii	Azhuta river (Azhuta), Muthirapuzha (Munnar), Hill stream (8th Mile Munnar), Bhavani river (Mukkali)
50	Median Egret	Mesophoyx intermedia	Kumarakum wetland, Periyar reservoir (Thekkady),Confluence of Panpa & Achankovil river (Veeyapuram), Kayamkulam Lake, Vambanad Lake (Kuppapuram)
51	*Nilgiri Flycatcher	Eumyias albicaudata	Hill stream (8th Mile Munnar)
52	Orangeheaded Ground Thrush	Zoothera citrina cyanotus	Muthirapuzha (Munnar), Sholayar river (Perumpara estate, Malakkapara)
53	Pariah Kite	Milvus migrans	Malampuzha dam (Palakkad)
54	Pied Bushchat	Saxicola caprata	Nullathanniaar (Nullathanni, Munnar), Hill stream (8th Mile Munnar)
55	Pied Kingfisher	Ceryle rudis	Kallada river (Kallummothilkadavu), Kadalundi river (Chamakayam), Chaliyar river (Nilambur)
56	Pond Heron	Ardeola grayii	Kallada river (Kallummothilkadavu), Pallikkal river (Malumelkadavu), Pamba river (Trivani/Sabarimala), Achankovil river (Pandalam), Changanassery canal, Periyar river (Vallakadavu), Vambanad Lake (Kuppapuram), Kcheripuzha (Cherananllur)
57	Purple Morhen	Porphyrio porphyrio	Kallada river (Kallummothilkadavu), Kayamkulam Lake
58	Purple Sunbird	Nectarinia asiatica	Thodupuzha
59	Purplerumped Sunbird	Nectarinia zeylonica	Neyyar river (Kallikadu), Ithikara river (Chenkulam), Kazhuthruthyaar (Kazhuthruthy), Pamba river (Athikayam), Minachil river (Poovathummuddu)
60	Racket-tailed Drongo	Dicrurus paradiseus	Kallana aar (Chitara estate), Bhavani river (Mukkali), Muthappankolli (Muthanga Wildlife Sanctuary)
61	Red-vented Bulbul	Pycnonotus cafer	Periyar river (Vallakadavu), Irritipuzha (Irriti)
62	Red-wattled Lapwing	Vanellus indicus	Kallada river (Pidavoor), Muthappankolli (Muthanga Wildlife Sanctuary)
63	Red-whiskered Bubul	Pycnonotus jocosus	Karamana river (Anekkayathumoola), Pamba river (Aratakadavu/Sabarimala), Kallar stream (Thannimoodu)
64	River Tern	Sterna aurantia	Kallada river (Neduvennorkadavu), Azhuta river (Pampa valley), Achankovil river (Pandalam, Kallarakadavu), Minachil river (Poovathummuddu), Vambanad Lake (Kuppapuram), Chaliyar river (Nilmbur)
65	Rose-ringed Parakeet	Psittacula krameri	Karamana river (Anekkayathumoola)
66	Rufous-backed Shrike	Lanius schach	Periyar Reservoir (Thekkady)
67	Shikra	Accipiter badius	Nedukani
68	Small Blue Kingfisher	Alcedo atthis	Kallada river (Kallummothilkadavu, Pidavoor), Pallikkal river (Malumelkadavu), Pamba river (Trivani/Sabarimala), Kallar river (Vadaserikara)
69	Small Green Bee-eater	Merops orientalis	Kallana aar (Chitara estate), Kallada river (Pidavoor), Achankovil river (Kallarakadvu), Kayamkulam Lake
70	Spotted Dove	Sterptopelia chinensis	Nullathanniaar (Nullathanni)
71	Tailor Bird	Orthotomus sutorius	Kallar stream (Thannimoodu), Bhavani river (Mukkali)
72	Thick-billed Flowerpecker	Dicaeum agile	Pamba river (Athikayam), Achankovil river (Naduvathumulikadavu)
73	Whiskered Tern	Childonias hybridus	Vambanad Lake (Kuppapuram)
74	White Ibis	Threskiornis melanocephalus	Kumarakum wetland, Kalapathipuzha (Thondikulam)
75	White-bellied Drongo	Dicrurus caerulescens	Kallada river (Kallummothilkadavu)
76	*White-bellied Treepie	Dendrocitta leucogastra	Kallana aar (Chitara estate), Valiyakulamthodu (Valiyakulam/Palappilly)
77	Whitebreasted Kingfisher	Halycon smyrnensis	Neyyar river (Neyyattinkara, Kallikadu), Ithikara river (Chenkulam), Kallada river (Kallummothilkadavu), Achankovil river (Pandalam), Minachil river (Poovathummuddu), Confluence of Panpa & Achankovil river (Veeyapuram), Vambanad Lake (Kuppapuram), Kadalundi river (Chamakayam), Koodathaipuzha (Koodathai), Thamarakulam Lake
78	White-breasted Waterhen	Amaurornis phoenicurus	Pamba river (Trivani/Sabarimala)
79	White-cheeked Barbet	Megalaima viridis	Karamana river (Anekkayathumoola), Vamanapuram river (Avanavancheri), Kallana aar (Chitara estate), Pamba river (Athikayam), Kallar stream (Thannimoodu), Confluence of Panpa & Achankovil river (Veeyapuram)
80	White-Eye	Zosterops palpebrosus	Kunthipuzha (Sairandri/Silent Valley National Park)
81	White-necked Stork	Ciconia episcopus	Periyar Reservoir (Thekkady)
82	Yellow Wagtail	Motacilla flava	Azhuta river (Pamba valley), Kallar river (Vadaserikara)
83	Yellow-browed Bulbul	Iole indica	Kallar stream, Periyar river (Vallakadavu), Bhavani river (Mukkali)

Note: * indicates Western Ghats endemic

Table 5.3. Fishes found in rivers and hill streams, Kerala

Sl.No.	Species Name	River Source	IUCN Status
1	Aplocheilus lineatus	Manjappuzha (Manjappalam), Neyyar river (Kallikadu), Vellayani Lake, Kallana aar (Tributory to Ithikara river), Pampa river (Athikayam), Achankovil river (Naduvathumulikadavu), Changanassery Canal, Cheruthoniaar	LRlc
2	*Barilius bakeri	Penavoorkudithodu (Kuttampuzha)	LRnt
3	Barilius bendelisis	Sholayar river (Perumpara estate, Malakkapara)	LRnt
4	Barilius sp.	Kallar stream
5	Bhavania australis	Kadalundi river (Manchalamchola)	LRnt
6	Danio aequipinnatus	Manjappuzha (Manjappalam), Theekoiaar (Adukkam), Cheruthoniaar, Thodupuzha	LRlc
7	Danio malabaricus	Kunthipuzha (Sairandri, Silent Valley National Park), Hill stream (Bhothokallu/Aralam)	LRlc
8	Etroplus maculatus	Confluence of Thodupuzha & Kaliyar river (Puzhakarakavu), Penavoorkudithodu (Kuttampuzha), Chalakudypuzha (Koodupuzha, Karuvannurpuzha), Thodupuzha, Kadamankadavu,	LRlc
9	Etroplus suratensis	Thommankuthu falls, Neyyar river (Kallikadu), Pamba river (Athikayam, Chenkulathakavu, Aluva)	LRlc
10	Garra sp.1	Hill stream (Kallar), Achankovil river (Naduvathumulikadavu), Theekoiaar (Adukkam), Thodupuzha, Penavoorkudithodu (Kuttampuzha)
11	Garra sp.2	Hill stream (Moonnukalunkutodu), Hill stream (Bhothokallu/Aralam)
12	Garra sp.3	Sholayar river (Perumpara estate, Malakkapara), Kadalundi river (Manchalamchola)
13	Glossogobius giuris giuris	Pampa river (Chenkulathakavu), Confluence of Thodupuzha & Kaliyar river (Puzhakarakavu)	LRlc
14	Hyporhamphus limbatus	Minachil river (Poovathummuddu), Muvathupuzha river (Vettikattumukku),	DD
15	Labeo rohita	Kalapathipuzha (Thondikulam)	LRlc
16	Mesonoemacheilus triangularis	Hill stream (Bhothokallu/Aralam)	LR
17	Notopterus notopterus	Chitturpuzha (Mulethara dam, Palakkad)	LRnt
18	Puntius ampihibius	Neyyar river (Neyyattinkara), Kadamankadavu, Kallar stream, Ithikara river (Chenkulam), Penavoorkudithodu (Kuttampuzha),	LRlc
19	Puntius arulius arulius	Pookote lake & Mananthavady puzha (Wayanad)	EN
20	Puntius conchonius	Pamba river (Trivani/Sabarimala)	VU
21	Puntius fasciatus fasciatus	Kunthipuzha (Sairandri, Silent Valley National Park), Kadalundi river (Manchalamchola), Manjappuzha (Manjappalam), Payaswinipuzha (Jalsoor), Chandragiripuzha (Panathur), Bhothokallu stream (Aralam WLS), Neyyar river (Neyyattinkara, Kallikadu), Karamana river (Anekkayathumoola), Kallar stream,Karamana river (Killiyar), Kallada river (Neduvennorkadavu), Pamba river (Trivani/Sabarimala, Chenkulathakavu), Achankovil river (Naduvathumulikadavu), Theekoiaar (Adukkam), Cheruthoniaar, Penavoorkudithodu (Kuttampuzha), Sholayar river (Perumpara estate, Malakkapara), Chalakudypuzha (Karuvannurpuzha).	EN
22	*Puntius filamentosus	Kunthipuzha (Sairandri, Silent Valley National Park), Chandragiripuzha (Panathur), Pamba river (Athikayam), Achankovil river (Pandalam), Muvathupuzha river (Vettikattumukku), Theekoiaar (Adukkam), Confluence of Panpa & Achankovil river (Veeyapuram), Muvathupuzha river (Kakkad), Periyar river (Aluva), Penavoorkudithodu (Kuttampuzha).	LRlc
23	Puntius parrah	Penavoorkudithodu (Kuttampuzha)	EN
24	Puntius sarana sarana	Cheruthoniaar, Payaswinipuzha (Jalsoor)	VU
25	Puntius sp.	Kunthipuzha (Sairandri, Silent Valley National Park)
26	Puntius ticto	Karamana river (Anekkayathumoola), Muvathupuzha river (Vettikattumukku), Chalakudypuzha (Koodupuzha)	LRlc
27	Puntius vittatus	Kadamankadavu	VU
28	Rasbora daniconius	Manjappuzha (Manjappalam), Karamana river (Anekkayathumoola), Ithikara river (Chenkulam), Pallikkal river (Malumelkadavu), Pamba river (Trivani/Sabarimala),  Azhuta river (Pampa valley), Minachil river (Poovathummuddu), Theekoiaar (Adukkam), Cheruthoniaar, Thodupuzha, Confluence of Panpa & Achankovil river (Veeyapuram), Confluence of Thodupuzha & Kaliyar river (Puzhakarakavu), Penavoorkudithodu (Kuttampuzha), Chalakudypuzha (Koodupuzha).	LRnt
29	Salmostoma boopis	Bharathapuzha, Payaswinipuzha (Jalsoor)	LRlc
30	Schistura denisoni denisoni	Kallada river (Neduvennorkadavu), Pamba river (Athikayam), Theekoiaar (Adukkam)	VU
31	*Schistura nilgiriensis	Hill stream (Bhothokallu/Aralam)	EN
32	Schistura sp.	Kunthipuzha (Sairandri, Silent Valley National Park)
33	Schistura sp.	Kallar stream
34	Schistura sp.	Sholayar river (Perumpara estate, Malakkapara)
35	*Tetraodon travancoricus	Confluence of Panpa & Achankovil river (Veeyapuram)	EN
36	Tor sp.	Kallar stream
37	Xenentodon cancila	Penavoorkudithodu (Kuttampuzha), Ithikara river (Chenkulam), Confluence of Panpa & Achankovil river (Veeyapuram).	LRnt

Note: * indicates Western Ghats Endemic; EN – Endangered; VU – Vulnerable; LRnt – Lower Risk near threatened; LRlc – Lower Risk least concern; DD – Data deficient.