Potential anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant drug sources from MPCAs: Recent research has highlighted the anti-inflammatory properties of several plants found in MPCAs, such as Alstonia scholaris (Kan: Haalemara; San: Saptaparni), because of alkaloids, picrinine, vallesamine and scholaricine which have anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties (Shang et al., 2010). Three phenolic compounds viz., artocarpesin, norartocarpesin and oxyresveratrol, serving the same purpose, are identified in the leaves and roots of the jackfruit tree Artocarpus heterophyllus (Shailashree et al, 2012). Embelia ribes (Kan: Vayuvilang) has anti-inflammatory and cell death regulating properties, with potential in cancer treatment (Chitra et al., 1994). Garcinol from the fruit of Garcinia indica (Kokum) has strong antioxidant activity (Krishnamurthy et al., 1981). Terminalia chebula (San: Haritagi) fruit extract has anti-inflammatory property (Chattopadhyay and Bhattacharyya, 2007). Phenolic compounds are a class of antioxidant agents which act as free radical scavengers and are considered as a major group of compounds that contribute to the antioxidant activities of plant materials because of their neutralizing ability on free radicals due to their hydroxyl groups The climber Naravelia zeylanica and the shrubby plant, Adhatoda zeylanica (Kan: Adusoge) and Vitex negundo (Kan: Nukki) often grown in hedges, are high in phenolic compounds and are good antioxidants. These plants are rich in flavonoids, a group of polyphenolic antioxidant and antimicrobial compounds known for free radical scavenging, antibacterial and anti-inflammatory action (Sree et al., 2014).
In folk medicine leaf paste of Ricinus communis (castor), a common village shrub, is used as a pain reliever (Upadhya et al., 2012). The Paliyar tribes of Dindigul in Tamil Nadu apply the ground paste of rhizome and leaves of Gloriosa superba (also a rainy season herbaceous climber of MPCA areas)for rheumatism affected areas. Mango bark is boiled in water and inhaled for relieving toothache (Mayilsamy and Rajendran, 2013). 

Anticancer properties: It is notable that some of the household garden medicinal herbs of the MPCA villages, like Andrographis paniculata (Kan: Kiriatha) has anticancer and immunostimulatory effect. Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) cultivated for the tubers, rich in caffeoylquinic acid, has potential cancer chemoprotective effect. 4-Ipomeanol  isolated from I. batatas has been found to exhibit anticancer activity against non-small cell lung cancer lines. Leaves of Martynia annua (cat’s claw), a common roadside weed and stem of Rhaphidophora pertusa, an aroid climber of evergreen forests, grown as ornamental like the ‘money plant’ have been used against and neck and abdominal cancers respectively. Citrus limon (lemon or nimbu), cultivated for the fruits in local gardens, is rich in flavonoid, tangeretin and nobiletin, which are potent inhibitors of tumor cell growth and can activate the detoxifying P450 enzyme system.  Limonene (a terpenoid) of lemon also possesses anticancer activity. Nimbu fruit is used for inhibition of human breast cancer cell proliferation and delaying of mammary tumorigenesis. It is also used in metastasis and leukemia  (Pandey and Madhuri, 2009). Leaf extract of Garcinia morella was highly cytotoxic and showed antiproliferative and anticancer property (Garg et al., 2007). 

Herbal drugs for diabetes: Some extracts/drugs act as α-Glucisidase or α-Amylase Inhibitor. These types of drugs/extracts are able to reduce the blood glucose level by inhibiting the gastric enzymes which is obligatory for the breakdown of the polysaccharides into simple sugar. The seed extract of Syzgium cumini – (neerilu)  and leaf extract of guava leaves (Pisidium guajava), common household fruit tree, show α-amylase inhibition. Some herbs like the tuber of locally cultivated sweet flag (Kan: Baje-gida) Acorus calamus, used in the therapy of diabetes in traditional folk medicine, when consumed sensitizes the insulin activity. Extracts from the leaves and bark of mango tree Mangifera indica have antihyperglycaemic activity which reduce blood glucose level directly. Similar activity is shown by the bark extract from banyan tree Ficus bengalensis (Kan: Aala). Extracts of the aerial parts of Coccinea indica (Kan: Tondekai), common vegetable creeper of the region, and fruits of Ficus glomerata (Kan: Atthi) have antiglycaemic activity (Pandeya et al., 2013).

A good list of antidiabetic plants/parts locally grown or found in the wild include leaves/bark/root of Aegle marmelos (Kan: Bilpatri), Aloe vera leaves (hypoglycaemic), leaves of Amaranthus spp. (Kan: Hargi-soppu), including ‘Mullu-hargi’ Amaranthus spinosus (α amylase inhibition), fruits of Sitaphal annona squamosa, fruit of ash gourd (Kan: Buthi-kumbla), Benincasa cerifera (antidiabetic and helps deranged lipid metabolism in diabetics), the household medicinal herb Boerhaavia diffusa (antidiabetic), mustard seeds from Brassica juncea (hypoglycemic), plant parts of Kaare tree, Catunaregam tomentosa  (antioxidant and antihyperglycemic) of degraded forests, coriander seed from Coraindrum sativum (hypolipdemic and hypoglycaemic), cucumber fruits from Cucumis melo (antioxidant and hyperglycemic), pumpkin fruit from Cucurbita maxima (antioxidant and hyperglycemic), the common medicinal grass Cynodon dactylon (antidiabetic, antioxidant and improve diabetes associated neurological disorders), the yam (Kan: Suvarnagadde), Elephantopus scaber (antidiabetic and α glucosidase inhibition), leave and shoots of Vayu-vilang Embelia ribes (antihyperglycemic), bark of Aswata, Ficus religiosa (antihyperglycemic and antidiabetic), aerial parts of Gymnema sylvestre (reduces blood glucose level, increase plasma insulin level, hypolipidemic), fruit of Hirekai (Kan), Luffa acutangula (antihyperglycemic, antioxidant), Sensitive plant Mimosa pudica (antihyperglycemic), fruit of Hagalakai (Kan) Momordica charantia (antidiabetic), seed of Mucuna pruriens (hypoglycemic), leaves of Karibevu (Kan) Murraya koenigi (renal complications in diabetics), Tulsi, Ocimum sanctum (variously useful), Nelanelli (Kan) Phyllanthus amarus (antidiabetic), bark and leaves of Bet-honne (Kan) Pterocarpus marsupium (various benefits), fruit of Dalimbe Punica granatum (antidiabetic), leaves and root bark of Ekanayaka (Kan) Salacia spp. (α glucosidase inhibition, antidiabetic), fruit of brinjal Solanum melongina (hyperglycemic, antioxidant), fruit of Taare (Kan), Terminalia bellirica (various benefits), stem of Amruthaballi (Kan) Tinospora cordifolia (various benefits), fruit of snakegourd Trichosanthes anguina (antioxidant, hypoglycaemic), seeds of Kaadu-jeere Vernonia anthelmintica (various benefits) (Pandeya et al., 2013). The list continues emphasizing how a blend of traditional folk medicine, Ayurveda and modern medical treatment programmes derived from such traditional knowledge systems can take holistic health care of the people through awareness, biodiversity protection and appropriate utilisation.
US patent 6207714 granted in 2001 to Dallas L. Clouatre for use of hydroxycitric acid for treating or ameliorating diabetes or insulin resistance by lowering elevated blood sugar levels. Major source of hydroxycitric acid today in the world market is Garcinia cambogia and to lesser extent G. indica.
It is notable that the Paliyars of Dindigul in Tamil  Nadu use the seeds of Syzygium cumini with shade dried leaves of Andrographis paniculata (Kan: Kiriyata), Abrus precatorius (Kan: Gulgunji) and Gymnema sylvestre are ground into powder and taken orally along with cow’s milk for diabetes (Mayilsamy and Rajendra, 2013).

Speech, memory: Acorus calamus (Kan: Baje-gida) rhizome is used in small quantities, in traditional medicine, as a paste mixed with honey and given to the children for clarity of speech as well as for cold and diarrhea (Mayilsamy and Rajendran, 2013).  Its cultivation needs to be promoted in household as the rhizome has good marketing potential as well. The leaves of the herb Centella asiatica found growing widespread in local gardens is consumed widely in Uttara Kannada and elsewhere for improving memory. It is a nutraceutical as well. Powder of Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi), a waterside herb, with Saraca indica (Ashoka) bark powder in equal amounts,  administered 5g of everyday, is said to be effective for mental clarity, intelligence and memory One teaspoon of Asparagus recemosus (Satavari) root powder taken with milk everyday is stated as an effective memory enhancer. Powder of Glycyrrhiza glabra (Mulaithi) roots, Asparagus recemosus (Satavari) roots, Centella asiatica (Mandukparni) and Evolvulus alsinoides (Shankhpushpi), in equal amounts, one teaspoon with milk is considered useful for memory   (Bhowmik et al., 2010).

Skin ailments: A good lot of medicinal plants found in MPCAs, or in nearby villages, are used for various skin ailments in traditional medicines, either locally or elsewhere in India.  The Paliyars of Dindigul use Aegle marmelos (Kan: Bilpatri) leaf paste application for body itching. Ardisia solanacea seed paste, and Gloriosa superba leaf paste are used for skin diseases as topical application. They apply the root paste of ‘Bringaraja’ Eclipta prostrata for dandruff and ‘Manjishta’ (Rubia cordifolia) root paste for boils on the skin (Mayilsamy and Rajendran, 2013).

Bone setting: The Adivasis of the Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh use ‘Shivane’ (Gmelina arborea)  plant parts for bone setting in humans and cattle (Venkataratnam and Venkataraju, 2008). Stem-leaf decoction of Amruthaballi, Tinospora cordifolia, and stem decoction of T. sinensis are used for bone strengthening by forest/rural communities of Uttara Kannada and Belgaum districts. They apply Eppemara (Kan) Madhuca longifolia seed fat as a massage oil and leaf juice of Shivane, G. arborea, to set the broken bones. The common wild herb Kaadu-bende,  Urena lobata decoction is used for bone hardening after bone setting and gingelli oil from Seasamum indicum (it grows also as escape from cultivation) is used for application as a pain reliever (Upadhya et al., 2012). Bone fractures are traditionally treated with many plants that have presence in and outside MPCAs. These include bark paste of Dodda-holegeru (Kan), Holigarna grahamii (Upadhya et al., 2009), corm paste of Suvarna-gadde (Kan) Amorphophallus paeonifolius (Das et al., 2008), leaf paste of Balagane (Kan) Diospyros Montana, root paste, leaf paste of Bolatali-naru (Kan), Bridelia stipularis (Ignacimuthu,  2006), seed/root paste of Gulagunji Abrus precatorius (Anam, 2001), Tagache (Kan), Cassia senna leaf paste (Upadhya et al., 2009), Aala (Kan) Ficus bengalensis , crushed seed paste of Jumminkai Zanthoxylum rhetsa etc. (Upadhya et al., 2012).

Cardio-vascular ailments: Ayurvedic knowledge needs to be coupled with modern medicine and more scientific research needs to be done to verify the effectiveness, and elucidate the safety profile of herbal remedies for their antihypertensive potential. Rauwolfia serpentina is considered the most promising hypotensive plant. The local promising plants which require more research are Phyllanthus amarus (Nela-nelli), leaf extracts of the stem semiparasite plant Viscum album etc. (Tabassum and Ahmad, 2011). Vitex leucoxylon (Hole-nukki) has property to lower serum cholesterol. Terminalia bellirica (Ta

MEDICINAL RESOURCES OF FUTURE FROM MPCAs

Actinodaphne hookeri (Kan: Tud-genasu; Trade name: Pisa): The tree has promising growing stock in seedling and sapling stages and their localities of concentration need special protection. The seed fat or pisa has commercial value and also has export potential. According to the Wealth of India Vol.1 A, CSIR, Delhi, Reprint 2003, of the 340 tonnes of annual production of  pisa from India, 132 are said to be from the forests of Sirsi. The fat (oil) from seed is used as an external application in sprain and joints. Pisa fat is a much better source of lauric acid than palm kernel or coconut oil. Lauric acid is used in the prepartation of compounds like sodium lauryl sulphate, methyl laurate and lauryl alcohol. The fat can be used for soap making, confectionary and agarbatties. A cold infusion of leaves used in treatment  of  urinary disorders and for treatment of diabetes.

Alangium salvifolium (Kan: Ankolimara, San: Ankola): This rambling tree or shrub has a spreading nature; therefore even few individuals make good resource. These need to be marked for special protection. Roots are used in Ayurvedic medicine. Root bark is prescribed for biliousness and colic. Roots are diaphoretic and used in fever as a decoction or powder. Root bark has antitubercular activity. Rootbark extract is effective against ascaroid parasites of poultry. The roots have several valuable alkaloids. Root extract has hypotensive properties. Alkaloid mixture from stem bark AL-60 is used in treating blood pressure. Leaves are applied as poultice in rheumatism. The edible berries have anti-phlegmatic, laxative, tonic and cooling properties, and are useful in emaciation and haemorrhages, strangury and consumption, and also useful for curing eye troubles. The fruit is rich in various alkaloids. The seeds, also rich in alkaloids, are reputed in indigenous medicine for their cooling and tonic properties and for treatment of haemorrhage and boils.

Aporosa lindleyana (Kan: Challe): Quite common in the degraded portions of both the MPCAs. The root is traditionally given for jaundice, fever, headache, insanity etc. (Chopra et al., 1966). Roots have strong antioxidant activity (Badami et al., 2005). Antimicrobial activity and analgesic activity of bark extracts of the plant is helpful in treating various kinds of diseases in future days. The antimicrobial and analgesic activities of this plant extracts in traditional preparations can be justified by modern studies (Srikrishna et al., 2008).

Artocarpus hirsutus (Kan: Hebbalasu; Eng. Wild jack):The Kurichia tribe of northern Malabar hills use the ground bark of the species for application on piles (Prasad and Shyama, 2013). An infusion of the bark is applied to cure small pimples and cracks on the skin. The powdered bark is used to heal sores. Dried leaves are used to treat hydrocele (http://frlhtenvis.nic.in/KidsCentre/Artocarpus_hirsutus_1636.aspx). Leaves, fruits as well as bark are used to treat diarrhoea, skin diseases, intrinsic haemorrhoage and poisons . Fruit Leaves and Bark of Wild jack is used for diarrhoea, pimples and indigestion (www.toxicologycentre.com)

Artocarpus lakoocha (kan: Vate-huli; san: Lakooch): It is rare tree in the forest. But can be propagated in coast facing degraded areas. Bark when applied externally heals boils, cracked skin and pimples. Seeds are purgative, blood agglutinating and antibacterial. The heartwood containing large amount of oxyresveratrol, could be considered as a source of starting material for the development of a new natural product as anti-HSV and anti-HIV agent. It has therapeutic value on cutaneous Herpes simplex virus. The antioxidant constituents present in the fruits play important role in scavenging free radicals and reactive oxygen species which are responsible for number of human disorders. Another traditional use has been in the treatment of tapeworm infection (Gautam and Patel, 2014).

Cinnamomum malabatrum (Dalchini, Cinnamon):  Getting well established in Jankadakal forest, especially in growing stock. The plant has been known for their multiple pharmacological effects such as analgesic and anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, antioxidant anticancer properties. The leaf extract has proven anti-hyperlipidemic activity  (Natarajan et al., 2014). The fresh extract of the leaves has presence of phenolics and flavonoids in large amount, which are antioxidants (Aravind et al., 2012).

Diospyros candolleana (Karimara): The tree is rich in phytochemicals of which many are under investigation. It is used in folk medicine. Very common tree in Jankadkal.

Diospyros sylvatica: The tree has highest presence in Jankadkal. Three quinones from the root extract plumbagin, isodiospyrin and microphyllone have strong termiticidal properties against underground termite, Odontotermes obesus (Ganapathi et al., 2004). The extract from the plant has strong antimalarial properties requiring further studies (Kantamreddi and Wight, 2008).

Elaeocarpus serratus: Chemical investigation of the leaves of yielded myricitrin, a strong antioxidant against DPPH (Jayasinghe et al., 2012). Used in traditional medicine as diuretic and as a cardiovascular stimulant. The leaves are used in the treatment of rheumatism and as antidote to poison, while the fruits are locally prescribed for the treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery. Chemical investigation reveals the leaves as a good source of bioactive compounds such as fatty acid esters, alcohols, hydrocarbons, aldehydes, alkenes, fatty acids and amides that justify the use of this plant for its various ailments by traditional practitioners. These active bio compounds may yield nature friendly strong antioxidant, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory agents and analgesic agents (Geetha et al., 2013).  This evergreen tree is an ecotone indicator and ideal for peripheral forests between the human settlements and the forest.

Ervatamia heyneana (Kan: Maddarasa): A shrub or small tree with latex, this is a medicinal plant of repute in the traditional medicine. It is being used in traditional medicine to treat microbial infections, diabetes, skin and venereal diseases, hepatotoxicity, and renotoxicity (Sathishkumar and Baskar, 2014). The discovery of the anticancer alkaloid Campothecin, one of the most impressive anticancer molecules of the recent times in the stem of E. heyneana may be considered a great breakthrough discovery. The tree can be easily propagated in large canopy openings, in the clearances below power transmission lines, roadsides, scrub etc. Camptothecin, a quinoline alkaloid, is used as antitumor drug, in the treatment of cancers of colon, head, breast and bladder 3, 4. In addition to its antitumor property, camptothecin also possesses activity against retrovirus and human immunodeficiency virus 3. Campothecin is also present in good quantity in Nothapodytes nimmoniana. The stem has most content of Campothecin (Dighe et al., 2012). Heynein from the latex of Ervatamia has a potential protease for food and biotechnology applications (Patel and Jagannatham, 2003). Renoprotective compounds were discovered in the leaf extracts (Sathishkumar and Baskar, 2014). Raising these trees in large scale in scrub jungles, marginal lands of local farmers, may be a good option for the future, provided there is also market linkages and buy back guarantees.

Ficus nervosa (Kan: Neerathi): A large sized, soft wooded, evergreen tree occasionally present in both the MPCAs. It is used in Chinese traditional medicines for treating inflammation, cancer and pain, including diabetes mellitus. The leaf extract has has beneficial effects on blood glucose level as well as improving hyperlipidemia and other metabolic aberrations. It has the potential to impart therapeutic effects in diabetes (Raj et al., 2011; Devi et al., 2012). The  bark extract, in experimental studies clearly acted as a stomach ulcer protective agent

Garcinia indica (Kan: Murugila; Eng: Kokum). The tree is found somewhat common in the partially open portions and lower slopes of Shrigunji MPCA. Kokum fruit juice is a healthy drink. It is digestive, relieves sunstroke and is good for digestive problems. Ayurveda recommends it for many ailments: Kokum seed fat for chaffed skin, as remedy for diarrhoes and dysentery, treatment of burns, scalds, allergies etc. Kokum syrup is appetizer and liver tonic (Kirtikar and Basu, 1991). The fruit extract has both antibacterial and antifungal properties (Varalakshmi et al., 2010). Garcinol from the fruit rind might be beneficial as a potent antioxidant and a glycation inhibitor under specified conditions (Yamaguchi et al., 2000). The fruit rind is used to prepare juice, pickles and as acidulant in curries. In the Ayurveda and in various folk systems of medicine, the fruit rinds and leaves are used to treat various inflammatory ailments, rheumatic pain and bowel complaints. The kokum butter prepared from the seed is of both commercial and medicinal use. Some of its phytochemicals possess antibacterial, antifungal, anti-ulcerogenic, cardioprotective, anticancer, chemopreventive, free radical scavenging, antioxidant and anti-obesity effects (Baliga et al., 2011). There is a continuous increase in demand in kokum products in the domestic and international market. Coastal Maharashtra and Goa have achieved greater success with increased cultivation of kokum and increase in employment in kokum products. Costal Karnataka is yet to realize such benefits, though the plant is endemic to this region. 

Garcinia cambogea (Kan: Uppage): Fruit rind as souring agent for curries, like tamarind. Seed fat used for cooking. Medicinally important. It is used as a food preservative and condiment. It has positive effect on liver and cures bilious affections. It is also used in ethnomedicine for rheumatism and treatment of tumours. Modern research has found that such reduction in appetite is due to the richness of Hydroxycitric acid (HCA) in the rind. The Garcinia products have antiulcerogenic, antioxidative, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory and anticancer effects. The fat from the seed (or seed oil) is used for preparation of special dishes in the Malnadu districts of Karnataka. Today there is raging global demand for G. cambogia fruit rind, mainly for extraction of HCA. Many international companies and Indian companies are actively in the market with G. cambogia products for obesity reduction.

Holigarna spp. (Kan: Holegeru, Kaduholegeru etc.): Several species of Holigarna, which occur in the Shirgunji-Jankadkal MPCAs are evergreen trees with proven medicinal properties. In traditional medical care they have been used for the management of arthritis, dysentery, hemorrhoids, skin diseases, cancer and also as antiseptic (Divakar et al., 2010; Shyama and Prasad, 2012). Retrospective researches evidenced that H. arnottiana has antioxidant, antifeedant, anticancer and allergic potentials. These activities might be due to the presence of diverse bioactives metabolites in this species. Some biochemicals were found very effective against various microorganisms and especially against shrimp pathogens (Manilal and Idayadhulla, 2014). ‘Hydroxy citric acid’’ from kokum has potential of anti- obesity agent which suppressed fatty acid synthesis.

Hydnocarpus wightiana (Kan: Thoratte; San: Chaulamoogra; Tuvaraka). Has moderate presence in Jankadkal MPCA. Known for antidiabetic properties in traditional medicine. The seeds have strong antioxidant, α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. Hydnocarpin and isohydnocarpin from the seeds are mainly responsible for free radical scavenging properties. Chaulmoogra oil obtained from the seeds has been traditionally used in treating leprosy. It was confirmed that the  ethanolic extract of the seed hull of Hydnocarpus Wightiana has the antidiabetic activity (Reddy et al, 2005; Reddy et al., 2013). The tree needs to be propagated in peripheral forest areas, in shaded or partially shaded dry or perennial stream-sides, shaded gullies, ravines etc. as it is a promising medicinal plant for the future.

Knema attenuata: Trees are numerous in Jankadkal forest and also having good regeneration. The aril and kernel extracts have significant larvicidal action on mosquito larvae (Vinayachandra et al, 2011). Forest tribes of Kerala use it as a repellent for leeches in the forest (Sudhakara- undated).

Lannea coromandelica (Kan: Gojjalu; San: Jinghani. It is a well-known tree of traditional medicine in India.  It grows fairly well in the secondary deciduous forests and amidst the degraded portions of Shirgunji MPCA. The tree has been documented for its potential as anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, hypotensive,  wound healing,  and aphrodisiac activities. The plant also illustrated its beneficial effect on ulcerative stomatitis, dyspepsia, general debility, gout, cholera, diarrhoea, dysentery, sore eyes, leprosy, sprains and bruises, elephantiasis, eruptions, snakebite, stomach ache, and vaginal trouble.  Moreover, the plant gum is given in sprains, asthma and as to women during lactation. It has antibacterial activity against S. pyogens, S. aureus and antifungal property against C. albicans corroborating the Ayurvedic use (Kaur et. al., 2013).

Lepisanthes tetraphylla: Sapindaceae tree, with moderate presence in Jankadkal MPCA, is known in traditional medicine for the treatment of elephantiasis, skin disease, fever and for its anti-convulsant property. A recent study showed its highly significant anticonvulsant activity similar to the standard drug Phenytoin and Diazepam (Ranjini et al., 2013).

Mallotus phillippensis (Kan: Kumkumadamara; San: Kampillaka, Kamala): Good number of juveniles noticed in Jankadkal with few adults. The tree needs to be promoted with special care in view of its medicinal values. Red powder of the fruit (glandular hairs) makes the most medicinal product. It is used against intestinal parasites, especially roundworm and hookworm. It is given in combination with Butea monosperma and Embelia ribes. Follow up period for a month in children showed significant eosoniophil count. Krimighatini vatika is an Ayurvedic preparation based on the plant (http://herbalnet.healthrepository.org/). The root powder applied on the skin against fiery rashes. Kamala powder is effective against tapeworm. It may be given in water mucilage or syrup. The powder is effective against herpetic ringworm (http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/k/kamala01.html). The red powder is an excellent vegetable dye for textile and can have promising future as an important NTFP.

Mangifera indica (Mango): Sparingly seen in the wild though cultivated widely. During the decades of industrial extraction of timber mango suffered heavy casualties. Though lot of traditional medicinal uses are available in literature and in local practice modern research has also brought out many new things. According to Nunez-Selles (2005) extract of stem bark is attributed with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic and immune-modulatory properties. It prevents the progress of AIDS, increase the patient’s quality of life in gastric and dermatological disorders, in AIDS, cancer and asthma.

Mimusops elengi (Kan, San: Bakula): Grows to very large size. Infrequent in Jankadkal, but saplings are more frequent. It is very important in traditional medicine. The bark is used for cooling, a cardio tonic, stomachic, anthelmintic, tonic, astringent which cures biliousness, diseases of the gums and teeth. The flower is cooling, astringent to the bowels are used to cure the disease of blood, biliousness, liver complaints, diseases of the nose, headache, their smoke is good in asthma. The fruit is astringent to the bowel, good for the teeth. Seed strengthens the loose teeth. Root is used a gargle for receding gums. Recent research has shown that various phytochemicals from the tree possess analgesic, antibiotic, anti-hyperlipidemic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antipyretic properties and are useful in treating gum bleeding, gastric ulcer etc. (Kadam et al., 2012).

Myristica  malabarica (Kan: Rampatri): The evergreen portions of the Jankadkal and Shirgunji forests ideal for the species. But threat exists from indiscriminate collection of seed arils by chopping of branches of the trees. Seed used in external application for unhealing ulcers; crude fat from seeds analgesic and used in rheumatism and gangrene (https://www.google.co.in).
It is used in traditional medicine for indigestion, ulcers, wounds, as rejuvenator, in treating inflammation, cough, diarrhoea, dropsy, liver disorders, paralysis and urinary calculi (Keshavamurthy, 1994), also used in bronchitis, fever, burning sensation, to relieve pain in muscles, sprains and sores (Purushothaman et al., 1977).

Persea macrantha (Kan: Gulmavu): Sparingly seen in Jankadkal, this well-known medicinal and NTFP tree requires much greater attention than it gets today. It is traditional medicinal plant, its bark being used in the treatment of asthma and rheumatism. Leaves are used externally in ulcer. Experimental animal study indicates anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic properties of Persea macrantha and thus provide pharmacological support to the traditional use in the treatment and management of painful, arthritic inflammatory conditions (Kulkarni et.al., 2009). Bark is used in treatment of tuberculosis, bone fracture, in traditional medicine. In Uttara Kannada-Sagar region its bark is used in equal quantity with that of cinnamon bark to prepare a poultice for setting fractured bones of cattle (Harsha, et al., 2005). The Halakki-vokkaligas use the powdered bark with egg-white and applied locally to the affected part in form of poultice act as an anti-inflammatory and anti-rheumatic agent (Kumar and Surana, 2011). The forest dwelling communities like Kunbis, Gowlis, Siddis etc. use crushed bark of the plant is given with milk to treat weakness and debility (Harsha et al., 2002). It could be as effective as diclofenac sodium in controlling inflammation (Tatiya and Hattapaki, 2003). It is notable that the widespread use of diclofenac as cattle pain killer caused widespread extermination of vulture population in India.

Pterospermum diversifolium (Kesale): The tree has reasonably good presence in Jankadkal. Tannin rich leaves and bark,  are  used  in  traditional  medicine  e.g. as a poultice against itching  and  to  treat wounds, and  taken internally  to  treat dysentery.  Leaves are given to cattle suffering from stomach disorder. The extract was found to have good antibacterial activity (Hidayatulla et al. 2011). The tree will not require any special propagation efforts as there is a tendency for it to colonise blanks in the evergreen forest.

Stereospermum colais (San: Pathiri): A deciduous tree occasionally present in both the MPCAs. All the parts of the tree are useful in treating many disorders. The leaves are used to treat earache, toothache and in relieving rheumatic pains. It is used for malarial fever and healing of wounds.  Decoction of the leaves is used for fever and to treat chronic indigestion. The root is one of the important ingredients in Dasamula an Ayurvedic formulation. The roots are diuretic, useful for kidney stones, expectorant and cardio tonic, anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial, used against vomiting and in treatment of asthma (Warrier et al., 2002). Stem bark extract has analgesic activity. It has significant antibacterial and antifungal properties. The root extract has anti-glycaemic and anti-radical activity (Prema et al., 2013). The tree needs to be propagated through nurseries, supplied to farmers and the products marketed.

Syzygium caryophyllata (Kan: Kuntneerilu). Leaf essential oils exhibited promising antibacterial activity suggesting further research towards bio-prospecting of active compounds. The oil had 55 compounds in winter and 129 compounds in summer (Natarajan and Pujari, 2014). Antioxidant, antimicrobial and anticancer studies using leaves showed that it has potential utilization in pharmaceutical industry (Gayathri et al., 2012).

Terminalia paniculata (Kan: Kindal): Bark used in Ayurvedic medicine for the treatment of inflammation of parotid glands and in menstrual disorders. Recent research shows it may be a potential preventive or therapeutic candidate for the treatment of chronic inflammation and arthritis (Talwar et al., 2011). It could be an effective and promising preventive agent against paracetamol induced hepatotoxicity (Eshha et al., 2011). It has a protective role in pathologies involving oxidative stress (Talwar et.al., 2013).

Tetrameles nudiflora: Giant sized soft-wooded trees. The bark is used traditionally to cure skin itching. These occur occasionally in the MPCAs. They are notable often for harbouring several large hives of Apis dorsata.

Vitex altissima (Bharanige): The tree is well represented in Jankadkal and Shirgunji MPCAs. Its parts are used in traditional medicineto treat stomatitis, cardiac diseases, anorexia, blindness, leprosy and worm infestation. Stem bark is taken to treat ephemeral fever, snake bite, rheumatic swellings and chest pains. Leaves are used for wounds and skin allergies. Recent study (Bose et al., 2014) shows that its leaf extract inhibited pain and oedema, brought down fever and was comparable to paracetamol, thereby justifying folklore use.

PATENTS ON GARCINIA

Garcinia indica (Kokum) and G. cambogea (Uppage) are tree species and well known medicinal and nutraceutical plants of Western Ghats. The recent years have witnessed both these species entering in a big way in the world market for their various medicinal and nutraceutical properties. It is necessary to create awareness on such species among the local people and work out a mechanism for regulating access to such valuable assets for large scale commercial production of drugs and nutraceuticals by multinational companies. According to the Biodiversity Act-2002 the benefits out such commercial production should be equitably shared. As of August 2012, a total of 66 patents that apply to Garcinia cambogia or Hydroxycitric acid (HCA) derived from Garcinia were filed with the US Patent and Details of some of the patents granted are given below:
U.S. Patent No. 5,783,603 granted to Majeed et al. for administration of potassium hydroxycitrate for the suppression of appetite and induction of weight loss. Hydroxycitric acid (HCA) was obtained from the rinds of Garcinia fruits

Patent WO 2003092730 A1: granted in 2003 to Unibar Corp for a method preparation of Hydroxycitric acid (HCA) from the fruit rinds of Garcinia indica and Garcinia cambogia using a method Invented by Sunil Bhaskaran and Sevanti Mehta. This form of HCA can be used in the preparation of a variety of foods (http://www.google.co.in/patents/WO2003092730A1)
US Patent 6160172 granted in 2000 to Vittal Mallya Scientific Research Foundation for a method preparation of HCA (Ref: ibid.)

US patent 6207714 granted in 2001 to Dallas L. Clouatre for use of hydroxycitric acid for treating or ameliorating diabetes or insulin resistance by lowering elevated blood sugar levels (Ref: ibid)

US patent application 20120252898 from Sevanti Mehta (Houston, Texas) published on 10/04/2012 provides a method of producing a stabilized naturally occurring hydroxycitric acid from Garcinia indica fruit (http://www.freepatentsonline.com/y2012/0252898.html)

Patent no. WO2005007088 A2 granted in 2005 to applicants Sunil Bhaskaran, Sevanti Mehta and Unibar Corp for method of extraction of stabilized anthocyanin pigment (hue of red) from Garcinia indica fruit rind. It can be used as a red colorant for a wide variety of foodstuffs, beverages, nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, toiletries and the like, and as a natural anti-oxidant in such products  (http://www.google.im/patents/WO2005007088A2?cl=en)

US patents 7858128; 7335651 & 7937626: Super Citrimax: InterHealth’s Super CitriMax® (Hydroxycitric acid) patented brand Garcinia cambogia is claimed for  its weight management benefits. Research lead by Dr. Harry Preuss, Georgetown University, demonstrates 3x more effective than diet and exercise alone. Super CitriMax is a patented, natural, non-stimulant fruit extract used as an ingredient in dietary supplements, functional food and beverages for a healthy weight. It is marketed in India as ‘Garcinia cambogia Gold’ by GoIndiaOrganic.co.

US patent application no.20120252898: Sevanti Mehta has applied for a patent on a particular method of producing a stabilized naturally occuring Hydroxycitric acid (HCA) from Garcinia indica

US Patent 6147228 has been granted (2012-11-14) for “A convenient method for the large scale isolation of Garcinia acid” for inventors Ibrahim Ibnusaud et al. Owner name:  DST, Govt. of India.

Patent EP 0866137 B1 granted to Lupin Laboratories Ltd. for ‘Process for producing calcium salt of (-)-Erythrohydroxycitric acid’ from Garcinia indica, G. cambogia and G. atroviridis on 15 January, 2003.
- Ref for details: http://www.faqs.org/patents/app/20120252898#ixzz3KrMTL3jm
GarCitirn: A widely patented bioavailable composition of natural and synthetic HCA. A standardized extract from the dried rind of Garcinia cambogia. It is used for weight reduction. Marketed by Sabinsa Corporation, an international company. The company’s many trademarked products have Indian medicinal plants as their bases. For eg: Bacopin®, Boswellin®, Citrin®, Curcumin C3 Complex®, Curcumin C3 Reduct®, FenuFibers®, Fenusterols®, Gugulipid®, Gymnema Sylvestre GS4®, Momordicin®, Picroliv® etc. (http://garcitrin.com/about-sabinsa) D'AGE™ Slender U: Widely atented Garcinia cambogia. The hydroxycitric acid formulation is claimed as fastest fat burner and natural appetite suppressant. A product of KJI Pharma Co. Kula Lampur.

PATENTS ON TINOSPORA CORDIFOLIA

Patent US 7914824 B2 granted in 2011 to Piramal Life Sciences Ltd. for Extract of Tinospora cordifolia; immunoadjuvant; chronic recurrent urinary tract infections; nephrotic syndrome; Glomerulonephritis.

Patent US 20060045923 A1 granted in 2006 to Lal Higorani and Vijay Thawani in 2006 for  a composition for use in a nutritional product and its extraction process.

Patent US 20080274212 A1 granted in 2008 to Nicholas Piramal India Ltd. for Extract of Tinospora cordifolia for use as immunoadjuvant; chronic recurrent urinary tract infections; nephrotic syndrome and Glomerulonephritis

PATENTS ON HYDNOCARPUS WIGHTIANA
Patent US 5514712 A granted in 1996 to Shiseido International France for use of oils of chaulmoogra (mainly from Hydnocarpus spp.) in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical domain, particularly in dermatology, for harmonizing pigmentation of the skin