Forest ecosystems in Uttara Kannada district have witnessed major transformations during the post-independence. Uttara Kannada district has the distinction of having highest forest cover among all districts of Karnataka. Land use analysis using temporal remote sensing data reveal distressing trend of deforestation in the district, evident from the reduction of   evergreen - semi evergreen forest cover from 67.73% (1973) to 32.08% (2013). Taluk-wise analyses reveal similar trend for  evergreen - semi evergreen forest cover during 1973 to 2013; Ankola (75.66 to 55.33%), Bhatkal (61.37 to 30.38%), Honnavar (70.63 to 35.71%), Karwar (72.26 to 59.70%), Kumta (62.89 to 29.38%), Siddapur (71.42 to 23.68), Sirsi (64.89 to 16.78), Supa (93.56 to 58.55%), Yellapur (75.28 to 18.98%), Haliyal (35.45 to 2.59%), Mundgod (2063 to 1.52). Forest cover has declined from 81.75 (1973) to 60.98% (2013) in the coastal zone, 91.45 (1973) to 59.14% (2013) in the Sahyadrian interior, and 69.26 (1973) to 16.76% (2013) in plains zone. Implementation of developmental activities without taking into account the ecological significance of ecosystems, services provided by them in meeting the livelihood of local population has resulted in the degradation of forests. These changes in the landscape structure (through large scale land use changes) have altered functional abilities of an ecosystem evident from lowered hydrological yield, disappearing perennial streams, higher instances of human –animal conflicts, declined ecosystem goods, etc. This necessitates the restoration of native forests in the region to ensure water and food security apart from livelihood of the local people.  About62814.48 Ha of forest land is diverted for various non-forestry activities during the post-independence period. About 7071.68 Ha of forest area has been encroached for agriculture, horticulture  activities, etc. Maximum encroachments of forest lands are in Sirsi, Honnavar forest divisions i.e., 3641.66 Ha and 1851.93 Ha respectively. An appropriate policy framework is required to prevent further encroachments of forest land and ensure sustainable management of natural resources.

Keywords: Land use, forest ecosystems, developmental projects,

Introduction

Karnataka state comprises of 30 districts, of which Uttara Kannada, Dakshina Kannada and Udupi are in the costal belt. Uttara Kannada (Figure 1) district is bounded between 13.769o to 15.732o north and 74.124o to 75.169o east. It encompasses an area of 10,291 sq km, which is 5.37% of the total area of the State. The district extends to about 328 km north south and 160 km east west. Most of the district is hilly and thickly wooded. The area of the district is 10,222.3 sq km. For administrative purpose, the district has 11 taluks. Supa taluk is the largest with an area of 1890.3 sq km and Bhatkal taluk the smallest in district with 348.9 sq km.  The district is surrounded by state of Goa and Belgaum district in the north, Dharward and Haveri in the east; southern neighbours are Udipi and Shimoga districts, the Arabian Sea on the other side. This district takes away maximum portion of the shoreline, i.e., 120 km of 300 km of the total costal belt of Karnataka.

Figure 2: Geographic location of Uttara Kannada district

1.1 Administrative Profile:
The district is divided into 11 taluks (Figure 3). The district capital is at Karwar, the northernmost coastal taluk. The Deputy Commissioner is the administrative head of the district. The Chief Executive Officer of the Zilla Panchayat has also his office at Karwar. The Zilla Panchayat consists of the elected representatives of the people. The district has four Assistant Commissioners- at Karwar, Kumta, Bhatkal and Sirsi. The Tahasildar is the administrative head of the taluk. The villages are grouped under Village Panchayats, run by elected representatives. These 11 taluks have been divided into 1336 villages of which 1263 are inhabited and rest of the villages (73) is uninhabited.
The district, being the most forested one in the peninsular India, has a well-organised unit of the Forest Department. Named 'Kanara Circle' its administrative head is the Conservator of Forests. The Circle comprises of five territorial forest Divisions with the headquarters at Haliyal, Yellapur, Karwar, Honavar and Sirsi. Each Division is headed by a Deputy Conservator of Forests / Division Forest Officer (DFO). The entire forest area of the district is divided into 34 forest Ranges, each under a Range Forest Officer, and 131 forest Sections each under a Forester, and 425 Beats each under a Guard.
The Fisheries Department is under the Deputy Director of Fisheries. The department, with headquarters at Karwar, administers matters pertaining to marine, estuarine and inland fish resources. In addition Karwar also has the branch office of Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI), Cochin. Scientists here gather regular data on marine fisheries.
The Agriculture Department is headed by the Joint Director, whose office is at Karwar. The district is well known for horticultural biodiversity. Horticulture is under the jurisdiction of the District Horticultural Officer whose office is at Sirsi.
Senior Geologist heads Mines and Geology department which undertakes mineral investigation in the district.  The district officers of the Groundwater Wing are under the administrative control of Zilla Panchayaths and technical guidance is provided by the Directorate.
The district groundwater officers are also carrying out micro watershed studies, studies of any specific groundwater problems identified in the district and also carry out construction of artificial recharge structures in their jurisdiction.  They render technical advises for sinking of wells/bore wells and also for taking up rain water harvesting structures.  
Karwar even has a Natural Resources Data Management System (NRDMS), launched by the Department of Science and Technology. This is National initiative aimed at developing and inducting such data based approach to planning.

Figure 3: Taluks of Uttara Kannada district

1.2 Population
The population according to 2001 census data was 1,353,644 which amount to a population density of 132.42 per sq km implying a growth of 10.9 % in population data of 1991. The Bhatkal with the maximum and Supa minimum population density as can be seen in table 1 (Figure 4). 

Nearly 75 % of the population of UK district lives in villages and remaining 25 % in small towns. It is estimated that about a fourth of the population lives below poverty line. In terms of gender related health indicators the situation in UK district is significantly better. The life expectancy at birth of females in UK district is 70.Thousands of people in the district have been displaced in the past due to hydel projects, Seabird Naval Base, Kaiga Atomic plant, Konkan Railway etc. (There are of 73 uninhabited villages 26 of the villages are evacuated during these construction activities). The displaced people were mostly resettled in forest lands. A total of at least 5508 ha of forests have been used since 1956 for resettlement of displaced people, which include even Tibetan refugees Forest encroachment is viewed as a serious problem. To regularise encroachments which have taken place before 27.04.1978, a total of 2824.8 ha have been released (Forest Department, 2000-01). Presently there are about 10,000 families of encroachers who are facing eviction. This is a haunting socio-economic and ecological problem.

Table 1:  Taluk wise statistics of population, population density (persons/sq.km), number of villages and uninhabited villages.

+ Without considering the population of taluk headquarters.
The population density of the villages and taluk headquarters has been represented thematically for each taluk in Figure 5. The Bhatkal followed by Kumta are showing the higher density from 1991 to 2001 and Supa has the least population density in the district.

1.3 Climate
Uttara Kannada has a tropical climate. It has a well-defined rainy season of about five months between June and November when the south west monsoon brings most of the rainfall and the climate remains hot and humid. The winds are predominantly south westerly during the summer monsoon and north easterly during the winter monsoon. The year may broadly be classified into four seasons. The dry season is from January to February with clear and bright weather. It is followed by hot weather from March to May. During this season thunderstorms are common in the month of May. The monsoon season is from June to September.  The presence of Western Ghats in Uttara Kannada causes orographic precipitation (Mechanical lifting of moist air masses over natural barriers such as mountains causes orographic precipitation). The district falls under the Hilly agro climatic zone except for western parts of Karwar, Ankola, Kumta, Honnavar and Bhatkal taluks which fall under coastal agro climatic zone. The maximum rainfall is recorded in the coastal region and average rainfall toward the center of the basin and least rainfall toward the plains i.e., west to east. Bhatkal, which is a coastal region, receives high rainfall compared to other stations as can be seen in figure 6. The mean annual rainfall is 4237 mm. Areal rainfall estimation and the analysis show that the land use dynamics has affected rainfall, mean annual rainfall was higher before the construction of reservoir. Average rainfall of 2108 mm was found in Kali river basin before the construction of Supa reservoir. After the construction the average rainfall reduced to 2019 mm. Daily rainfall data of 18 rain gauge stations since 1901 for 112 years (1901-2011) was collected from the Bureau of Economics and Statistics, Govt. of Karnataka. Table 2 lists the rain gauge stations and its location. Mean annual rainfall and the standard deviation were calculated for all the rain gauge stations to know annual variability and areal rainfall for the same was estimated using the kriging technique.

Table 2: Rain gauge stations and its location

RGS: Rain gauge Stations, UK: Uttara Kannada, * (rain gauges in Kali river basin), # (rain gauges in Sharavathi river basin) - Stations chosen to analyse variations in rainfall with land-use dynamics with a well-defined rainy season between June and October, when the South-west Monsoon winds bring down on an average 2500 mm rainfall annually. The remaining part of the year has hardly any rains. Whereas the coastal and crest line taluks receive high rainfall, the north-eastern taluks, Haliyal and Mundgod have very low rainfall.

1.4 Topography:
The district is hilly and thickly wooded in most parts. Its major part is essentially highland, the lowland being restricted to the pockets along the course of rivers. Uttara Kannada is divided in to upland and low land by Sahyadri range (figure 7.1 and 7.2). Uplands are the regions above the ghat with an area near of 7,770 sq km, and 600 to 700 meters above the sea level. Lowlands cover a region of 3,370 sq km. The district has three main and distinctive regions: the costal, the Sahyadrian interior and the eastern margin where the plateau begin. Relief and climate have introduced these regional differences.

• The coast of Uttara Kannada is almost straight line except at the shallow Karwar and Belekeri bay in the north. Karwar, Kumta, Honavar and Bhatkal regions are   best developed with high economic development and a high density of population, as can be seen from the figure 4.
• The Sahyadrian region is mostly forested and only the road crossing the ghat sustains human activity, though the valley has special significance as belts of spice and areca gardens for which the district has been famous since yore.    
• The eastern margin is undulating land, partly under forest and partly cleared for agriculture. It is a transitional zone between the forests and cultivated up lands of Dharwad district.

The costal tract being in the north form the village Majali on the Goa border and continues in the south up to the Udipi district boundary a little beyond the port of Bhatkal, till Gorte village. It varies from about 16 to 48 km depending upon the nature of estuaries and the intermediate tableland. Contrary to the general impression this is not a ‘plain’ but a succession of estuarine plains connected by narrow costal strips. Thus the tract in its northern extremity is a narrow coastal strip with large fishing village of Majali, focus of human activity.   
A little to the south, Kali river joins the Arabian Sea, forming an estuary and supporting fishing activity. In the Kalinadi basin town of Karwar is located. The port of Karwar is always active as a result of mining activity in the district and nearby district. The Sea Bird project of navy has added one more dimension to this place. Further south of Kalinadi basin lies the Gangavali or Bedthi basin. These two basins are separated by small ghat known as Guddehalli-Baithkol range. This ghat forms horseshoe shape and some small rivers like Belambar, Navagadde and Hattikeri halla originate and join the sea (figure 2). In the catchment (basin) of Navagadde halla, Ankola is situated and is 20 km from Karwar. Bedthi merges in with sea at 3 km southwest of Ankola,.
Bedthi basin is separated from Aganashini or Thadri basin by a narrow range of hills. Kumta town is situated in this basin. South of Aganashini basin coastline is sandy and straight. The coastal line and coastal dunes has considerable influenced local agriculture. In the Sharavathi River basin, Honavar is located. The Sharavathi bridge and fisheries harbor, has contributed to the growth of Honavar. South of Sharavathi River basin, laterite assumes a more forbidden form and agricultural land is restricted to narrow strips along the coast. Bhatkal is at the southernmost tip of the district and a creek known as Bhatkal flows in the next to the town. In between Bhatkal and Sharavathi River, Venkatapur River flows (figure 2).
On the north, beyond the low level plateaus of the coastal region, lies the Malnadu of the North Karnataka. This is physically an extension of the Sahyadrian main range from Maharashtra in the north, and continues to the south in the districts of Shimoga and Hassan. From Chandgad border in the north to the border of the Siddapur taluk in the south, it has a length of about 110 km. As in the Maharashtra region the, the Sahyadris rise in a series of step from the costal lowlands, but the scrap face is not so bold as in the district of Kolhapur and Ratnagiri. In fact the geological composition gives a greater variety and a definite break which for a more favorable rainfall in the Dharwad district. The ‘rain shadow’ area is not so sharp and immediate in the northern Karnataka as it is in Maharashtra. Another interesting feature is the eastward shift of the watershed: the Kalinadi and Sharavathi Rivers drain a large the plateau area and through their captured course divert these water to Arabian Sea. Faulted topography is typical is typical of the western Sahyadris.  This has given rise to the harnessing of hydropower. Central portion of the Sahyadris mainly consists of the crest line ridges and upper reaches of the rivers developing more mature valley forms before they plunge in to deeper chasms and gorges to join the coastal levels. The eastern margin has a rounded topography and the boarder valley features, which mark the transition from between the main Sahyadrian landscape and the drier plateau of the upghat regions. The three-fold division of Sahyadrian region persists in its features of the vegetation and is well reflected in its regional economy. In the western spurs which touch the low-level laterite plateaus, the red soil favours stunted vegetation, but in the higher terraces, vegetation improves in both density and quality to an astonishing degree.  In the central belt, there is a mark of contrast between the hilltops and the backbone of ridges, which support a thinner vegetal cover and the river valleys where luxuriant deciduous growth is to be found. Evergreen strands are frequent features, but the riverbanks almost invariably carry the thickets of bamboo growth. In the eastern part of the Sahyadrian region, increasing dryness is the keynote in the landscape. It is a mellowed landscape with poorer types of forests having parkland scenery. Valleys open out toward the plateau margin of the Uttara Kannada district. Increasing cultivation and receding forest cover is a recurring pattern in the landscape (percentage change). 

Figure 7.1: Shade relief map of Uttara Kannada district

Figure 7.2: Digital elevation Model – DEM of Uttara Kannada district

Hills: The district is almost covered with hill, which may be arranged in to three groups:

• The bare flat –topped blocks of laterite from 60 to 90 meters high which roughen the coast belt,
• The westerly spurs from the central hills from 300 to 600 meters high stretch rugged and woody to the coast, and
• The main range and eastern spurs, of the central hills.

The west face of the Sahyadris in Uttara Kannada unlike the Sahyadris in Konkan does not rise in a single scarp, but is approached by numerous spurs and lower ridges. Locally the hills in the district are considered a break between two main ranges, the Sahyadris to the north that end at the Kalinadi near Karwar and the Malabar hills which stretches south from the Sharavathi River. Of the 11 peaks in the Sahyadris of the district, varying in height from 458 to 1050 meters, the Gudehalli and Shirvegudda are in Karwar taluk, the Bhedasgaon in Mundgod, the Menshingudda in Sirisi, the Hukali, Rakshasa and Mavinguddain Siddapur, Mothigudda, Kaltigudda, Darshanigudda and Nishanigudda are respectively in Ankola, Kumta, and Yellapur taluks. Suktale gudda and Sido Dongra gudda are the highest peaks with altitude of 1043 and 1049 meters in Supa taluk Darshanigudda in Supa (figure 8), about 1025 meters above the sea, rises near the meeting of the boundaries of Goa and Belgaum with Uttara Kannada.

Figure 8: Highest peaks of Uttara Kannada district

1.5 Rivers:
Kalinadi: The Kalinadi (figure 9) or Sadashivagad River originates near the village Diggi in the Supa taluk, and is known as Dagi in its upper reaches. It is also known as Karihole. Its total length is 184 km. To this river there are 6 major hydroelectric dams that have submerged over 32,000 acres of the rich forests area. The Supa Dam built in 1985 is one of the biggest dams across Kali. The other dams across Kalinadi: Kodasalli Dam, Kadra Dam, Kaneri Dam, Tattihalla Dam, Bommanahalli Dam.    After winding in the southeastern course for about 55km, it takes a sharpe turn to the south-west near the village Devikop. Beyond this point, it flows 66 km till the village Kadra. From here, it takes an east-west course and falls into the sea, three km north of Karwar. Of the two branches of the main stream, the Pandri or Ujli originates in the extreme north. The two streams join at Supa, about 32 km south east of the source of Pandri, which is a larger stream. The banks of the Kalinadi are comparatively high and those of the Pandri are sloping. From Supa, under the name Kalinadi, it flows about 32 km south east till about 12 km north of Yellapur where it joined by left bank by the Tattihalla, a stream with a southerly course of about 56 km from the north of Haliyal. Near the confluences is the famous stepped Lalguli falls. The Kalinadi flows down to be joins by Kaneri and the Vaki are its two tributaries. Kaneri originates near the village Kundal in Supa taluk, and flowing mostly in the Supa taluk, taking a southeast direction and joins the kali to the south of Sannamaga village. Below the Kadra, for about 32 km, the Kalinadi is navigable by steamers. The mouth the river has a depth of about 4.5 meters at low water and 6.5 meters at high tide. Near Kadra, the Thananala, originating from Goa, joins the river.
Bedthi: The course of Bedthi River (figure 10) is 161 km long. The Bedthi is formed by confluence of two streams, Bedthi and Shamala.  Bedthi originates in Hubli tank and Shamala has it origin near Someshwara temple, south of Dharwad. Two join near Kalghatgi and then, it is named Bedthi and it flows 25 km westwards and enters the Uttara Kannada district, and after a fairly straight south-westerly course of about 32 km, falls into the sea about 32 km south of Kalinadi. The Bedthi after joining Shamala passes along the border Uttara Kannada - Dharwad for about eight km before flowing 96 km in the district. Small streams, which join Bedthi River, are Mogaddehalla, Sonda River, Bill halla and Kaulgi halla. But none of them are notable feeders. 
Aganashini (figure 11): This River rises at Manjuguni near Sirsi and after a course of 70 km merges with the sea. The streams, which join Aganashini River, are Kanasur hole, Soma nadi, Benne hole, and Chindrika nadi. Kanasur hole, which originates near Sirsi, joins Aganashini River near Mutthalli. Yana the famous rock structure is located in Benne hole catchment. At Uppinapattana, the Aganashini River meets the tide and from here no it winds southwest and then northwest about 13 km to Mirjan an old seat of trade. From Mirjan, it forms a lagoon or a backwater that runs parallel to the coast, about 13 km long and 2 to 6 km broad, cut from the sea by a belt of land with nearly uniform breadth of about a mile. The outlet to the sea is about five km from the north end of the lagoon. It is between two hills, one 91 and other 122 meters high.         
Sharavathi: The Sharavathi River (figure 12) originates at Ambutirtha in Tirthalli taluk of Shimoga district. After northerly course of about 64 km from Nagar, it forms the southeast boundary of Uttara Kannada for about 13 km and it passes 32 km to west or 128 km in all to join the sea at Honavar. On the upper reaches of the Sharavati river is the large Linganmakki reservoir, which is the source of much of the hydroelectric power supply of the State of Karnataka. Apart from the Linganmakki dam, another dam across Sharavathi River is at Gersoppa. Badagani River rises in the peak of Kaltigudda, and flows west south, falling into the estuary of the Sharavathi River.   
Other rivers: Beside the above four major rivers, there are many minor streams flowing in the district. Of the many, the Varada River, tributary to the Tungabhadra River, originating in the north–east part of Shimoga district and flowing north and east, is an east flowing river in the district and passes through a corner of Uttara Kannada near the town of Banavasi, which stands on its northern or left bank and finally joins the Tungabhadra at Galaganath in the Haveri taluk of Dharwad district. Another river, which flows east in the district, is Dharma River, which originates at Islur, Sirsi taluk, from a tank. It passes through Mundgod taluk and joins the Varada in Dharwad district.  Hattikeri halla and Navagadde halla are limited to Ankola taluk.  Hattrikeri halla is joined by two minor tributaries, joining it before the Shikliturli village on the northeast corner of the taluk. The town of Kumta is situated on the banks of a small stream Kumta. The Venkatapur River rises in the Sahyadris near the village of Kanti about 20 km near Venkatapur. Chitti and Katagari are its two tributaries, joining it from the north. This river merges in sea few kilometers north of Bhatkal Rivers merging in sea. The Bhatkal River is another westerly flowing river and town of Bhatkal is situated on its banks.  

Figure 9: Drainage pattern of Kalinadi   showing the reservoirs.

Figure 10: Drainage network of Bedthi River

Figure 11: Drainage network of Aganashini River

Figure 13: Geology of Uttara Kannada

Bauxite:  Aluminous laterite with 42 per cent Aluminum oxide is found all along the coast line ofthe district. Bauxite containing more than 50 per cent alumina and low percentage of silica and titanium is found to occur in a reddish brown laterite covering an area of about 5.18 sq km at Mundolli and Talgod villages near Bhatkal. Small deposits are also found at (1) Swarnagudda, (2) Kumta plateau, (3) Haldipur and (4) Nirthadgi.

Copper: Copper is found in a small patch in Kaiga which is associated with ultramafics and meta-volcanics of Dharwar super-group.

Clay: Deposits of China clay (Kaolin) are reported to occur at the following places in the district: near Castle rock, Motigudda in Supa taluk, Hervatta extention in Kumta, near Hadinbal village in Honavar taluk and certain parts of Bhatkal taluk (sothern bank of Venkatapura river). Ankola also has deposit of clay which is slightly reddish in colour. 

Mineral pigments: Among mineral pigments, only ochre of different grades occurs in the district. Yellow and red ochres are the two chief types that are commonly found. Ochres of fairly good quality have been reported to occur in the neighborhood of Castle Rock. The occurrence of yellow ochre of inferior quality is reported in Kallemane and Kumbaragadde villages in Ankola taluk.

Vanadium Ore: Titaniferous-Vanadiferous magnetite occurs as late magnetic deposits intimately associated with the ultramafic rocks like pyroxe­nite and peridotite. The important deposits are found at Santepet, Mulemane, Surya Kalyanigudda, Kanlal hill, Hiregutti, Madangeri, Motigudda, Sariyasigpdda, Angudibail, Kodemane, Kantgani, Kanchinkere and Achave­gudda area.

Other ores: A small deposit of; asbestos associated with talc is reported to occur near Dhareshwar in Kumta taluk of the district and it is not of much economic importance. Partially developed rock crystals showing pyramidal termination at one end found encrushing the drusy cavities in a vein or reef of quartz in the .granite near Nidgod in the Siddapur taluk.
In Kumta taluk near Ramgundi, a band of good quality steatite is found, exposed for a length of about 75 m along the western flanks and on foot of the hill. Weathered and impure steatite is reported to occur as small bands near Karwar. The dolerite dyke rocks of coastal area of the district have made a name in Germany for its standard quality and for the nearness of ports. The deposits are reported from Aversa, Herwada Bagribail, Amdalli and Kodur. Granite gneisses and laterites are the chief building stones of the district. They are quarried at some places in the granitic regions and are being used as building stones.  In the coastal belt of the district glass sand (medium grained white silica sand) and ilmenite sands is found. Ilmenite sand caontains ilmenite and zircon and also monazonite, rutile, apatite, haematite, amphibole, epidote and chlorite in much smaller proportion.

                        Figure 14: Soil order of Uttara Kannada

  Figure 15: Soil of Uttara Kannada

        
Figure 16: Soil depth of Uttara Kannada
     
Figure 17: Soil texture of Uttara Kannada

The geomorphology of the Uttara Kannada (figure 18) is divided in to 30 categories considering the soil, topography, geology etc.

Figure 18: Geomorphology of Uttara Kannada
* source: NRDMS centre

1.9 Ground Water:

Uttara Kannada district consists of rock formations of a system of ridges and a plateau on the west, main aquifers are weathered and fractured zones of metavolcanic, metasedimentary, granites and gneisses, laterites, along with the alluvial patches found along the major stream courses. Laterites occur overlying the schist and granites, and alluvium along the rivers and lagoons of the coast. Ground water in the above aquifer material generally occurs under unconfined to semi-confined and confined conditions, in the shallower zones under phreatic condition and under semi-confined and confined condition in the deeper zones. The ground water is being exploited from within the depth range of 3.00 to 31.00mbgl through dug wells and 30.00 to 200.00 mbgl through dug-cum-bore wells and Bore wells (CGWB, 2006). The area that drives ground water are under dugwells (7302 Ha), borewells (2090 Ha), lift (596 Ha) for agricultural activities. Ground water in the district occurs under water table conditions in the weathered mantle and jointed and fissured in bed rocks. Along the costal belt ground water occurs in the sandy alluvium. Major part of Uttara Kannada district is covered by a thick capping of laterite mantle on granites, schistose rocks and sand stones. These laterites are highly porous and hold and transmit good quantity of ground water. The ground water recharge is mainly a result of infiltration of rain water and little extent through seepage from streams, tanks, reservoirs and water applied for irrigation. It is discharged artificially by abstraction of water from dug wells. The fluctuation of water table varies in the district from 3 to 12 m for hard rock area and alluvium, the specific yield varies from 2 to 3 per cent (Table 3). The figure 19 shows the taluk wise ground water and its condition and potential areas for recharging. The district is almost under safe condition and there is a lot of scope for recharging areaas.

Table 3: Ground Water level at taluk wise

Figure 19: Ground water status and potential areas for recharge

1.10 Vegetation:
In the slopes of Western Ghats from north to south of Uttara Kannada district, there is beautiful cover of dense forests. The forests, stimulated by heavy rainfall, start growing within a few kilometers from the coast. They are generally lofty, dense and characteristics by large number of trees which occurs together with fine canopies of tree crowns and shrub growth. As one moves from coast from ghats, the forests are semi-evergreen with grassy banks along the coast, interspersed with stunted growth of secondary species and scrub and also Acacia catechu.
The evergreen forests are found in places where the rainfall is more than 225 cm and from a narrow strip along the Western Ghats (figure 20 & 21). The soil types of these evergreen forests are mostly laterite but along the river basin, it is alluvial. The semi-evergreen forests are in the places where the rainfall is from 150cm to 25cm. The deciduous forests are situated in the rainfall areas of 100 cm and more. In the areas where the rainfall is below 90 cm, the dry deciduous forests are found.

 Uttara Kannada has 12 % of its land under cultivation and has happened because of hilly terrain. This rugged terrain is nurtures the forests. In Uttara Kannada both primary and secondary forests can be seen. Secondary forests has emerged because pre-colonial and early colonial period passed through phases of slash and burn cultivation by various local communities. This practice has cleared vast primary forest and now the secondary forest has come in to existence. This change from a cultivable land to forest occurs in various successions. The cultivable land first shows the sign of vegetation with the arrival of deciduous species. The deciduous specious are replaced over a period of time by evergreen trees. The study have shown that at many parts of Uttara Kannada evergreen have returned and the forests which were deciduous has become moist deciduous i.e., the percentage evergreen trees in the forest has increased over the time.  Mangrove forests can be found in the river estuaries, and the sandy beaches are home to groves of Calophyllum inophyllum, coconut and screw pine (Pandanus spp.).The rocky beaches at Binaga, Arga, Belekeri, Tadadi, Ankola Keni, Kadle, Kumta, Dhareshwar, Kasarkod, Murdeshwar, Bhatkal and Belke of the district is rich with marine fauna diversity.

Apart from these types of forests, there are many places we can see monoculture plantation. These plantations without diversity have caused more harm to the eco system than the good. The best example is Acacia which has a thick leaf with a layer of thick cuticle which rebukes the rain water to infiltrate. This monoculture does not even invite or help flora or fauna to thriving in them.  The district is also home to patches of savanna and degraded scrub jungles, which are often the result of over-use for logging or grazing. Much of the lowland has been cleared for agriculture. French Institute map (1985) show that about 7.1 thousand km² is under forest in various stages plus tree crops such as coconut and areca nut. Deducting from this 0.13 thousand km² under orchards, we are left with a figure of 6.9 thousand km² under some kind of vegetation, at least of scrub type (figure 20). It shows the regions of primeval forest patches and other types.

Figure 20: French Institute map (1985) at taluk wise distribution

     
     Figure 21: Vegetation distribution for Uttara Kannada District.

Types of forests found in various taluks of the district are as follows:
Ankola taluk: In Ankola taluk, as one move from one east to west, the forest types change from scrub to moist deciduous, semi-evergreen in stream pockets and interior depression. The western part which is adjoining the coastal is also denuded to unrestricted exercise of privileges and due to Kumri cultivation (shifting cultivation) in the past. The inland areas of moist deciduous and semi-evergreen are closed as fuel forest and high forest area, yielding firewood and timber respectively. Round about Hattikeri, in scrub, one can come across the Acacia catechu which yield valuable economic forest product called katha. The Bedthi River valley area supports valuable teak forests having the most common undergrowth, bamboo.
Bhatkal taluk: The type of forest in this taluk changes from laterite thorn to laterite evergreen. There is very little of moist deciduous forests. The barren hills around Murdeshwar and Bhatkal are a testimony to the acts of unrestricted feelings. As one goes in the interior, the vegetation improves gradually. The evergreen forests round Kop village in the northeast part of the taluk contain a large situated in the northwest and south west of the taluk contain a large number of Acacia catechu trees. These are bigger in the girth in the Bale forests in the southwest part of the border of Udipi district.
Haliyal taluk: The eastern and northwestern parts of Haliyal taluk comprise teak pole area tending to scrub towards the border of Darward district. The forest towards western half of this taluk are constituted at High forests, yielding valuable teak timber. The timber extracted from these high forest areas are transported to Dhandeli and Alnuvar forest depots. The drier parts of the area have sandalwood and are extracted annually on a sustainable basis. There are patches of evergreen forests towards the western side in the lower portions of the valley of the rivers and perennial streams.  Bamboo is considered as one the most valuable constituent of economic forest produce.
Honavar taluk: In this taluk, the forest type changes from semi-evergreen and evergreen. There is very little of the moist deciduous type which can be seen only on top of forests small hills in the western part of the belt. The coastal strip of the forests is all denuded and in many parts, the land has become unfit even to bear poor grass. As one advances in the interior, the forest growth improves gradually. These forests contain valuable timber trees like poon, ganjan, bobbi, honne, kindal, jamba, nandi, bharangi and others, suitable for matches and plywoods. The laterite semi­evergreen forests and evergreen forests in the northeast corner, in Mahime and Jankadkal villages of the taluk, contain tale palms. The belt of Acacia catechu also passes in this taluk, mostly confined to the southwest part of the taluk. The evergreen forests of Gersoppa contain varieties of canes which are exported outside the district.
Karwar taluk: In Karwar taluk, as one goes from west to east the forest types gradually change from laterite thorn to moist de­ciduous and laterite semi-evergreen to evergreen. The forest to the west of Honkane village has been depleted due to the unrestricted exercise of privileges. The deciduous forests in lower slopes tend to be towards high forests, yielding valuable timber of teak, sissum, honne, kindal, etc. Jamba is the predominant species of this tract. The upper slopes and lower valleys and banks of perennial streams contain patches of evergreen forests and large quantities of canes (calamum) that are exported to various places. The upper slopes are not worked due to their inaccessibility. Reserved forests of the moist deciduous type in the patches of laterite semi-evergreen in the interior situated on the steep hills round Karwar had been classified as "Karwar Town Five Miles Special Reserves".

Kumta taluk: In the Kumta taluk types of forests change from laterite thorn to moist deciduous, laterite semi-evergreen and evergreen as one advances from west to east as is the case in other taluks. The timber bearing high forests are confined to (he southeast part of the taluk at the foot of the Nilkund and Dodmane ghats round about the Soppinahosahalli village. Round about Mirjan, the laterite thorn forests contain khair trees which yield valuable catechu. Bamboos occur in the Aghanashini valley round about Soppina­hosahalli.

Mundgod taluk: The forest type in Mundgod taluk changes from scrub in the southwest near the Sirsi taluk boundary. The stock improves as one advances from east to west. The eastern half is comprised of teak pole area and the western in the high forest area. The deep valleys, in the southwest and the perennial streams belts are covered with patches of semi-evergreen forests. The drier parts of the teak pole arch towards the border of the Dharwad district contain sandalwood. The forests also contain bamboos.
Siddapur taluk: Going to the scanty growth in the eastern side and also to the major part of Siddapur taluk being very hilly, no part is organized except the area covered by sandalwood trees towards the north-east, east and south-east. This sandalwood belt extends to Sirsi, Mungod taluks also. The eastern part is drier and as one advances form east to west towards the ghats, the forest type improves to semi-evergreen. There are many large patches of evergreen forests callad kansin this taluk mostly confined to the west round about Dodmane, Nilkund and Malemane ghats. These contain valuable matchwood, the extraction of which will be economical only when communications are improved.
Sirsi taluk: The forests of Sirsi taluk are firstly semi-evergreen and evergreen types. The evergreen forests are attached here and there all over the area. The belt of sandalwood forest of Siddapur taluk runs over this taluk and is mostly confined to the southeastern part bordering Siddapur taluk and Shimoga district.
Supa taluk: The greater part of the Supa tract is very hil1y and preciphorous. The forest area falls into two different types of forests. The southeastern part of this taluk contains high forests, near about Gund and portions of the Nagjhari valley and the Kalinadi and the Kaneri slope forests, yielding mainly timber of valuable species. Gund has the finest teak plantations. Evergreen patches, are also found in the valleys. The forests of the northern point near about Castlerock yields only fuel and it merges into scrub forests, wherever the soil is very poor. Bamboo grows abundantly in this taluk.

Yellapur taluk: The northern part of the Yellapur taluk is a, valuable forests of teak. Bamboo is also plenty here, confined to the catchment area of Gangavali. The bamboo belt extends to Ankola taluk also.

1.11 Agro climatic zones:
Agro-climatic zoning is done on taking into consideration the rainfall pattern, quantum and distribution, soil types, texture, depth and physio-chemical properties, elevation, topography, major crops and type of vegetation. It helps in raising the production and productivity of the agricultural and livestock sector, and of arresting and reversing the deterioration of renewable natural resources involved in agricultural and livestock production and even comparative crop estimation.

Argo-climatic zones can correspond to two principal types-- general and specific--of agro climatic zoning. General types to agro-climatic zoning systems often refer to broad geographic regions (district, state, country, continent, or the entire world). The object is to identify zones of possible crops as related to the length of the vegetative cycles, the choice of crop and varieties, and the possibility of obtaining satisfactory levels of production. Specific types of agro-climatic zoning studies are done on a more detailed scale and refer to a particular crop. Specific requirements of the particular variety can be compared with existing climate conditions in each zone. Eventually, this type of zoning can narrow down to a single aspect of the crop: disease development, utilization of one cultivation technique, the demands of a particular phenological phase (term or period of photosynthesis, necessity of a dry period for maturation or of  intense cold for germination, etc.). One of the most interesting tasks of agro-climatic zoning is the comparative analysis of productive ability of various ecosystems.
Uttara Kannada has three types of agro-climatic zones (figure 21), coastal and hilly. District contributes for 160817 lack tones or just 1.47% of the food grains production of the state for 2000-2001(Department of Agriculture, Govt. of Karnataka).  Processing units are available for cashew, pineapple, coconut and vanilla. Long coastline, suitable agro climatic conditions and availability of water offer huge scope. The table 4 explains cropping pattern with respect to each taluk of the district. Major contribution is from Paddy cultivation followed by Groundnut. Sugar Cane and groundnut are major commercial crops grown in Uttara Kannada. Bengal gram, Green gram and Cowpea are the major pulses grown in the district. Groundnuts, Soyabean are major oilseeds.

Table 4: Cropping pattern at taluk wise

The Uttara Kannada district is rich in minerals such as iron, lime-stone, quartz, manganese, bauxite, molluscan shells, silica etc. These minerals were exported since pre-independence days or used within the country itself. In 1955 the Dandeli Ferro Allies Pvt Ltd. was established. The factory uses manganese ore extracted from the forest belt for production of ferro alloys. By 1981, as many as 98 mining leases were given in the catchment area of Kali river itself, covering an area of 125.6 sq km. Total mining area within the district, mostly situated in the forests of Joida, Yellapur and Karwar taluks are reported to be 148.94 sq km. The mining operations cause various disturbances to the ecosystems. Erosion by runoff causes damage to forests, agriculture and rivers. The increased silt load in the river Kali was considered as detrimental to many aquatic organisms.

1.13 Developmental projects
The recently completed Sharavati Tail Race produces 120 MW power (annual report 2001-02 Govt of India) at the expense of submerged 575 ha of biodiversity rich forests; another 125 ha of lands were given for other associated works.
Kaiga atomic energy plant which is a Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (P.H.W.R) with a capacity 2x220 MWe was commissioned in 2000 and another two units are under construction (Nuclear power Corporation of India limited).

 This project has taken away 732 ha of forest lands, which were rich in biodiversity. Nearly 450 species belonging to 338 genera have been recorded of which two monotypic genera viz. Carvia with a single species, C. callosa (Nees) Bremek. (Acanthaceae) and Moullava, again with a solitary species M. spicata (Dalz.) Nicolson (Caesalpiniaceae), and 28 species are endemic to the Western Ghats region (Krishnakumar et al., 1998). Environmentalists fear that the project will have severe consequences on the biodiversity of the region. About 677 ha forest lands were affected for making power transmission lines.

Table 5: Power generated by Hydel power stations across Kalinadi

The construction of more power projects are under consideration in the hitherto untapped rivers Bedthi and Aghanashini, despite organized protests from environmental activists and the farmers (Hegde, 1999).
The creation of rehabilitation centres for affected was also attended with forest clearance and ecological consequences. Ramnagar rehabilitation centre meant for settlement of Kali project evacuees was already deforested in 1975 creating severe erosion and desertification.
Project Seabird and Konkan Railways: The construction of Project Seabird Naval Base involved eviction of thousands of families of fishermen and farmers from the coastline of Karwar and Ankola taluks. Environmental modifications of great magnitude, such as building of breakwaters, dredging of the sea, filling up of coastal swamps, intensified construction activities and other landscape changes are being executed in the Project Seabird area. The rehabilitation of the evacuees brought greater pressure in other coastal villages as well as in the forest areas of hinterland. The construction of the Konkan Railway through the west coast, while revolutionising coastal transportation had also its own inevitable environmental impact in the form of landscape changes, diversion of agricultural and forest lands etc. 
Encroachments as a major causal factor of degradation: Encroachments of land belonging to forest department and public communities have become widespread in Uttara Kannada. Especially it is due to the higher price value of lands, large areas of Government land. Many reports from Government and nongovernment agencies emphasized the same. The identification and removal of encroachment of public lands is an immense task. It involves a serious action by Government, especially by the Departments of Forest and Revenue.  The Task force report by Government of Karnataka concludes that encroachment lands according to the details furnished by the Forest Department, the forest area of Karnataka state under encroachment is 69075 Ha. The forest land that has been encroached in Uttara Kannada is 11483 Ha. This issue is posing a serious challenge to decision makers.
Road and Rail network: Uttara Kannada is well connected with road network even though the terrain is rugged and hilly. Four National highways running across Uttara Kannada (figure 23). State highways connection different places of state connecting Uttara Kannada are five in number. State highways and National highway are connected with smaller towns with district road network of length 3645 km (table 6 & 7).  The following are major National highways and State highways details in the district. NH 206 connecting Honnavar and Tumkur, NH 17 connection Panvel and Trichur, NH 63 Ankola to Gooty, and NH 4A between Panaji to Belgam. State highways are SH 69 Kumta with NH4 via Sirsi, Mundagod and Thadas. SH 48 Kumta with Pavagada via Siddapur, SH 6 Karwar with Hanumasagar-Il -Kaiga-Yellapur-Mundagod. Sh 93 Siddapur with Khanapur in NH 4A with Talaguappa via Haliyal Yellapur and Sirsi. SH 95 Khanapur with Sadasivagad via Londa and Supa.
Table 6: Road & Railways length of district

Table 7: Road length of district at taluk level

Figure 23: Road and rail network of Uttara Kannada district

1.14 Biodiversity:

Amidst the development activities still Uttara Kannada has rich biodiversity even though most flowering plants, mammals and birds are documented, more diversity remains to be uncovered: especially lower plants, microorganisms, reptiles, moths, beetles, other insects and various other invertebrates. There is also very little documentation on diversity of traditional varieties of cultivated crops; much remains to be understood about the traditional agricultural systems and their intrinsic relationship with the environment, although agriculture is the lifeline of about 75% of the people. The earliest documented evidence of the agricultural practices is by British men Francis Buchanan and D. Brandis.   Our group at Centre for Ecological Sciences (CES, IISc) has conducted some ecological studies in natural resource management in various ecological zones.  The existing agricultural systems have been also documented by Prakruti, a NGO based in Sirsi.  Another NGO, Parisara Samrakshana Kendra has collected information on the paddy varieties of the district.

State of natural ecosystems
 
Plants: Daniels, et al. (1993) estimated that the district is known to shelter 1741 recorded species of flowering plants, a good number of them are endemic to the Western Ghats. The district is also a mosaic of different habitat types. A typical grid of forest area of 5 KM x 5 KM is likely to consist of six or more major types. The district has tremendous diversity of lower plants and animals. Unfortunately much remains to be done in inventorying such great diversity. P.K. Rajagopal (personal communication) has listed 70 species of Pteridophytes (ferns) from Uttara Kannada. A study by Naik (1992) in the Sharavati river estuary reveal the presence of 87 species of diatoms, 21 species of Dinoflagellates, 11 species of Cyanophytes and about 80 species of Green Algae (Chlorophytes). Naik et al (2000) have reported 55 species of phytoplankton from Kali estuary, 37 of them being diatoms. Phytoplanktons are the producers of the estuarine ecosystems and undoubtedly play vital role in making estuaries one of the highest productive ecosystems of the world. Nothing much is known about many of the lower plants such as Bryophytes and Lichens. A recent survey by Nayaka (2002) in the Western Ghats of the neighboring Shimoga district shows the presence of 143 lichens. Most of them are expected to be present in Uttara Kannada as well.

Animals: According to Daniels (1989) Uttara Kannada district has 419 taxa of birds. About 55% of these birds are residents in the district while 34% are winter visitors. Among the wintering birds 40% are water birds. The bird fauna of 419 taxa is considered remarkable for the size of the district (10,291 km²). The state of Kerala which is 3 times as large as the district has only 375 taxa and the state of Maharashtra which is 30 times larger, has 540 taxa.  Of the 63 taxa of birds endemic to the Malabar province (Western Ghats-west coast region) Uttara Kannada has 34 of these. The list of the endemic birds of Uttara Kannada are given in Table 7

Table 7: The endemic and rare bird species of Western Ghats-Sri Lanka found in Uttara Kannada

The district is rich in wild mammal diversity. These include elephants, tigers, leopards and the endangered mammal Lion-tailed macaque. The details regarding the bats of Uttara Kannada are shown in Table 8 and the list of other wild mammals, reptiles and amphibian in Table 9. The 25 species of bats from the district account for 62.5% of the total number of bat species recorded from the Karnataka region by Paul Bates and David Harrison. Of these the Gersoppa-Jog Falls region alone has 10 species.

Naik et al (2000) have reported 45 zooplankton spcies from the Karwar coast. There are 14 species of bivalves (clams) associated with the Aghanasihini river estuary, which is unique to the entire west coast (P.K. Bhat personal communication). It is notable that the collection of bivalves for food is a major employment for hundreds of women in the estuarine villages. They also gather empty shells for lime making and industrial purposes. The bivalves form an abundant and cheap source of good nutrition in coastal Uttara Kannada.

Table 8: The bats reported from Uttara Kannada (Bates and Harrison)

Table 9: Wild Mammals of Uttara Kannada

1. Bonnet Macaque (Macaca radiata)
2. Lion-tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus)
3. Common Langur (Presbytes entellus)
4. Nilgiri Langur (Trachypithecus johnii)
5. Slender Loris (Loris tardigradus)
6. Tiger (Panthera tigris)
7. Leopard (Panthera pardus)
8. Leopard Cat (Felis bengalensis)
9. Fishing cat (Felis viverrina)
10. Jungle Cat (Felis chaus)
11. Malabar Civet (Viverra civettina)
12. Small Indian civet (Viverricula indica)
13. Common Palm Civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus)
14. Brown palm civet (P, jerdoni)
15. Common Indian Mongoose (Herpestes mungo.)
16. Stripe-necked Mongoose (H. vitticolis)
17. Striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena)
18. Jackal (Canis aureus)
19. Indian Fox (Vulpes bengalensis)
20. Indian Wild Dog (Cuon alpinus)
21. Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus)
22. Common Otter  (Lutra vulgaris.)
23. Giant Squirrel (Ratufa indica)
24. Three Striped Squirrel (Funambulus palmarum)
25. Grizzled Giant Squirrel
26. Large Brown Flying Squirrel (Pteromys oral )
27. Grey Musk Shrew (Cercidura caerulea)
28. Common Indian Rat (Mus rattus)
29. Bandicoot rat (Nesocia bandocoota)
30. Porcupine (Hystrix indica)
31. Black-naped Hare (Lepus nigricollis)
32. Elephant (Elephas maximas)
33. Gaur (Bos gaurus)
34. Sambar (Cervus unicolor)
35. Spotted Deer (Axis axis)
36. Barking Deer (Muntjacus muntjacus)
37. Mouse Deer (Tragulus memimna)
38. Wild Boar (Sus scrofa)

Reptiles of Uttara Kannada

1. Crocodilus palustris
2. Heidactylus glea devii (house gecko)
3. Varanus bengalensis (Monitor lzard)
4. Lygosma guentheri
5. Chamaeleon calcaratus
6. Tylopus braminus
7. Python
8. Silybura elloti
9. Lycodon striatus
10. Hydrophobus nympha
11. Abalabes calmaria
12. Oligodon subgriseus
13. Zamensis mucosus (Rat snake)
14. Coluber helena
15. Tropidonotus monticola
16. T. plumbicolor
17. Dipsas ceylonensis
18. Dryophis perroteti
19. D. mycterizans
20. Callophis nigrescens
21. Naja naja (Cobra)
22. N. bungarus
23. Ancistrocladon hypnale
24. Trimeresurus strigatus

Amphibians of Uttara Kannada

1. Rana hexadactyla
2. R. cyanophyletis
3. R. tigrina
4. R. limnocharis
5. R. brevipes
6. R. malabaricus
7. R. curtipes
8. Micrixalus fuscus
9. Ixalus leucorhinus
10. Bufo melanostictus
11. Icthyophis monochorus (limbless Amphibian)

Table 10: Endemic fresh water fishes of Uttara Kannada rivers (Prakash Pandit, personal communication)

Uttara Kannada traditionally is very rich in biodiversity of marine and estuarine fishes. The details regarding the commercial fishes of the district are given in Table 11.

Table 11: Details regarding the marine and estuarine fishes of commercial importance from Uttara Kannada

**Estuarine and fresh water; ***Marine, estuarine and fresh water

1.15 State of domesticated/semi-domesticated species/varieties

Uttara Kannada has various ecological zones in the district and the cultivated diversity is different in each of these ecological zones. Uttara Kannada is somewhat representative of the state of Karnataka having the humid coastal region and the Malenadu or the hill region, and the drier eastern plains with rolling hills merging with the semi-arid to arid Deccan Plateau. These three regions are three different agro-climatic zones and account for the tremendous domesticated diversity of the district.

1. Coastal region: The coastal region where saline water intrusion is present with mangrove ecosystems is unique.  In this region sustainable traditional prawn cultivation is done.  In addition to this the farmers grow saline resistant paddy varieties known as ' Kagga' Similarly the coastal Kumtatown is well known for its coconuts.  This is a special variety with aroma and taste.
2. Foot hills of Western Ghats: The foothills in Bhatkal taluka are well known for cultivation of scented paddy variety.  Similarly Yana village in Kumta region is well known for good quality of coconuts with good yield and size.  The foothills are also the resource base of NTFP collectors.
3. Crestline region: This region mainly consists of Sirsi, Siddapur and Yellapur taluks. While the evergreen forest belt of this region is rich in wild biodiversity, the small narrow valleys are cultivated by farmers with arecanut, spices and paddy. The cardamom, pepper, areca, nutmegs and cocoa are the crops of the spice gardens.
4. Edge of ghats and plains: The eastern parts of the district on the edge of Western Ghats are unique for horticultural crops and rained paddy varieties.  In horticultural crops, the Pala region is a famous for growing mangoes.
5. Riverine forests: The forests on the banks of the small streams/ rivers in the district produce a unique ecosystem with diverse plant spices.  The special wild mango varieties used for pickles known as appemidi is found in this belt.
6. Livestock: Livestock is an integral part of the agricultural system in the region. Farmers keep cattle for ploughing and to meet the demand of milk. The local Malenad Gidda varieties of oxen and cow are the indigenous stock of the region. In recent years the cross breeding with the jersey stock has resulted in evolution of a cross bred stock that is used as draught as well as for milk. The farmers also keep goat and poultry. The local varieties are popular in the region. The Gawli tribes are specialised in rearing the buffalo which is popularly known as 'Gawli Buffallo.' Very little is done on the indigenous poultry of the district.
7. Honey bees: Bee keeping is one of the important components of cultivated diversity.  Bees play major role in conservation of biodiversity through pollination of crops, especially horticultural crops such as areca, mango, guava etc.  There are three major species of honeybees in Uttara Kannada, namely the Rock bee (Apis dorsata), Indian bee (Apis cerana indica) and sting less bees (Apis florea)
8. Paddy, legumes and sugarcane are important agricultural crops of the district. There are traditional varieties as well as modern HYV (High Yielding Varieties) in each of these crops, which are adopted by the farmers.  The diversity within each of these crops and several others is quite high though most of it is yet to be surveyed systematically. Despite small area under rice the local varieties grown are many, despite our incomplete documentation, as shown in Table 12

Numerous horticultural crops are important in the economy of the region.  The spice gardens in the narrow valleys in the Ghats have played key role through ages in the prosperity of the district. The pepper varieties known to be cultivated in the district during the past and present times are Dadiga, Giddakare, Kudrugutta*, Mallisara*, Tirpagare*, Waddakare.* The decline of the traditional varieties due to disease has made farmers resort to growing of hybrid pepper. The evergreen-semievergreen forests are rich in different species of wild pepper; although over the years, due to neglect and unplanned exploitation it is difficult to sight good yielding pepper in the wild.

Banana is widely cultivated in the district. the notable varieties are Boodibale, Chipsbale, Currybale(Anbale) Karibale, Mitka, Mysore mitka, Nenibale, Rasabale, Pachebale, Sakkarebale. Some exotics and hybrids are also grown in the district. Over the last ten years also, mainly due to the "Bunchy-top disease" the bananas are on the decline.

Table 12: The traditional rice varieties of Uttara Kannada

Arecanut is a major crop in the district, being cultivated in nearly 10,000 ha. As paddy cultivation today is nearly unprofitable many farmers have taken to arecanut. As arecanut needs more water there has been, of late, a wave of encroachment into the forests, along the streamsides, to raise small-scale areca gardens, causing further decline and endangerment of the already threatened Myristica swamps and decline of the climax streamside vegetation. Watershed value of stream catchments are negatively affected too.

The diversity of fruit trees in the region is high. They can be found in domesticated and wild ecosystems.  Mention may be made of the wild ‘appemidi’ mango variety, which is favourite for pickling.  Similarly the jack fruit varieties are also many in the district.  There are numerous varieties of wild fruits that are used by forest dwellers and children.  These include wild mangoes, kokum, uppage jackfruits, jujube, black berries (neerilu), gooseberries etc. These are on the decline due to the decrease in forest diversity.

The Western Ghats has divided the district in to coastal, hilly, and north transition agro-climatic zone. Due to varied zones in the Uttara Kannada it has rich biodiversity. Apart for biodiversity other natural resource are also rich.  This has attracted many players like hydle power stations, a nuclear power station, mining industries, paper industries are exploiting the natural resources and further disturbing the delicately balancing nature. The studies indicate that, in further if disturbance is avoided the evergreen species which are endemic to the region and which had depleted can come back increasing the richness in biodiversity.  Every decision taken has to keep nature and the consequences of unnatural act.

References

• Annual report 2001-2002 Government of India (http://powermin.nic.in/reports) site accessed on 14th June  2006
• Chandran M.D.S, 2003. Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan; Sub-State Site: Uttara Kannada (http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/hpg/envis/sdev/nbsap/welcome.htm) site accessed on 15th June 2006.
• CGWB, 2006. Central Ground Water Board Ground water information booklet, Uttara Kannada district, Karnataka.
• Daniels, R.J.R. 1989. A Conservation Strategy for the Birds of the Uttara Kannada District Ph.D. thesis, CES, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.
• Daniels, R.J.R., Chandran, M.D.S, and Gadgil, M. 1993. A strategy for conserving the biodiversity of Uttara Kannada: A district in south India, Environmental Conservation, 20(2), 131-138.
• Department of Agriculture,Govt.of Karnataka (http://raitamitra.kar.nic.in/statistics.html) site accessed on 13th June 16, 2006 
• Gazetteer of India (1984)., (Uttara Kannada) Ed. Kamath, S. U., Karnataka State Gazetteer, Government of Karnataka.
• Hegde, N. 1999. Uttara Kannada district: A profile of development. Paper presented at the Conference on Energy for the People: Planning, Conservation and Sustainable Alternatives, November 22-26, 1999, Yellapur.
• Karnataka  Road  Development Corporation (http://www.krdcl.com/kroads) site accessed on  June 16, 2006
• Karnataka state power corporation limited (http://www.karnatakapower.com/projects.asp) site accessed on  June 14th  2006
• Krishnakumar, G., Gopalakrishna Bhat, K. and Kaveriappa, K. M. 1998. Endemic, rare and threatened plants of the Kaiga forest of Uttara Kannada in Karnataka. Higher Plants of Indian Sub-continent (Additional Series of Indian J. Forestry No. X ) 8: 215-221.
• Naik, U.G., Shetty, D.C. and Kusuma, N. 2000. Distribution and diversity of zooplankton, in the coastal waters of Karwar. Paper presented in the National Seminar on the Conservation of Biodiversity & Coastal Aquaculture (abstracts)P.G. Centre, Karnatak University, Kodibag, Karwar.