Study area

Mandhala watershed (figure 1) lies in Solan district, Himachal Pradesh, India (76°50'04'' to 76°53'47'' E and 30°53'40.7'' to 30°56'18.5'' N) and falls in lower Shiwalik range in the Himalayas at 400-1100 amsl spread over an area of 14.5 sq km, characterized by dry evergreen forests. Degradation of forest is evident from the dominant cover of invasive exotic species Lantana camera. Trees of Holoptelia integrifolia, Dalbergia sisoo, Morus nigra, etc. occur along the field bunds and other open lands.

Figure 1: Study area: Mandhala Watershed

The Western Himalayan climate is differentiated by the effect of altitude, topography and geographical trend causing reduced precipitation, extreme temperatures and increasing snowfall (Gaston et al., 1983). The forests in the watersheds are managed as reserve forest by the state forest department, cutting of trees is prohibited, still lopping and collection of fallen wood for household and industrial purposes were noticed during the field survey.