Introduction

Study Area and Methodology

Result & Discussion

Conclusion

References

The current issue of Sahyadri E-News provides an insight into the spatial patterns of land uses with fragmentation (of forests) in SWG. The SWG falls in the three states are Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka. The total forest cover of the SWG is 39.2%. The current study results show a dominance of cropland and horticulture activities in all three states. Looking at the forest cover for each State in the SWG, Karnataka has 17.6% of the total area, Kerala has 12.3% of the total area, whereas Tamil Nadu has 9.5% of the total area in the SWG. The area under non-forest like built-up, cropland, horticulture, a forest plantation, and open-land was 14,731.98 sq km in Kerala, 14,997 sq km in Tamil Nadu whereas 22,816.46 sq km in Karnataka. The reduction in forest cover is due to anthropogenic activities due to unplanned developmental activities such as the construction of hydroelectricity projects, illegal mining, encroachment of forest land and conversion to croplands, and horticulture all over the SWG. Fragmentation of forest for the conversion to cropland and agricultural land and mining has increased the non-forested areas. The present study showed the fragmentation of the SWG. The total patch area in the SWG is around 5% of its total area, transitional is 4%, the edge is 3%, perforated is 15%, and the interior forest of the whole SWG is only around 15%. Fragmentation can be the reason behind increased patch areas in the SWG. The edge is due to the construction of roads, highways, and croplands in the forested areas. Land-use changes surrounding a reserve can reduce its conservation capacity, and loss of biodiversity inside a protected area may be attributed to the size or isolation of the conservation reserves. The move from traditional farming to rubber cultivation or teak plantations, etc., in the forested landscapes has impacted flora and fauna as well as the hydrological regime. This has resulted in a change in micro-climate and lowered the perennial rivers' water yield flowing through the parks (Ramachandra et al., 2018) . In the present study, reports by the forest department and newspaper articles on human-animal conflicts around the major national parks, protected areas, and corridors were reviewed and assessed with the fragmentation pattern. The fragmentation of native forests and reducing food, fodder, and water have escalated human-animal conflicts. Higher instances of human-animal conflicts in the fragmented forest area were observed with the prevalence of patches or edge forest, especially near protected areas or national parks. Bandipur National park, Wayanad Sanctuary, BRT, Nilambur forest division and Nilgiris are some of the areas where maximum instances of conflicts were recorded. The major conflict animals are tigers, leopards, and elephants. Affected villages in Kerala like Pudussery, Walayar and Mannarkad were present around the perforated areas, whereas Attappadi, Agali, Sholayur, Kottekad, Malampuzha were present in and around the edge and transitional forest. Gudalur was the most affected village in Tamil Nadu and Pattavayal, Padanthorai, Theppakadu, Mavanalla, Masinagudi, Moyar. In Karnataka, villages like Chowrira, Kokeri, Guyya, Ammathi, Virajpet, Ponnempet, Kanoor, Srimangala, Maldare were mainly affected by Elephants. Kottageri, Hangala, Hanchipura, Kalsur, Madanayakanahally, Hanchipura, Chikkabargi were mainly affected by Tigers as per the forest department reports. It was also observed that the wildlife corridors coincide with the affected villages having maximum conflict mainly due to the fragmented forest. Mitigating instances of human-animal conflicts entails implementing appropriate conflict management measures by restricting the conversion of forest land into cropland, or monoculture plantations that deprive wild fauna of their food, fodder and water. Measures toward improving regeneration of natural forests and ensuring continuity of animal corridors through connectivities. Wildlife conservation needs to be practiced beyond national parks and sanctuaries. Buffer regions outside the protected area network are often vital ecological corridor links and must be protected to prevent the isolation of fragments of biodiversity. Buffer zones with controlled land use activities have been suggested as a management strategy to reduce the influence of surrounding land use on biodiversity within the protected area (Bharath and Ramachandra, 2016). The study emphasizes the need to maintain the integrity of forest ecosystems by (i) mitigating fragmentation, (ii) ensuring food, fodder, and water availability in the region by maintaining diverse native species forests, (iii) incentivizing farmers to grow region-specific crops (not raided by wild animals such as pulses, millets, etc.) and (iv) discouraging cultivation of sugarcane and rice would help in resolving human-animal conflicts. Management recommendations ⦁ Grassland enrichment is to be thought of for selected grasslands. Very degraded grasslands may be closed to grazing, facilitating the revival of the grasses. ⦁ The practice of afforestation of grassy blanks has to be discontinued unless there is a need for recreation of resource patches (fruit trees and keystone plant resources favouring the life of herbivores). These resource patches have to be in block planting or in linear forms facilitating corridors for animal movements. A combination of both may be also carried out, after planning and deliberations. A list of species that can nurture by their products the fauna of the ADTR is given below Wild woody plants that provide food for wildlife and recommended for eco-restoration of fragmented or degraded forest patches

Sl.	Species	Local/Common Name	Parts eaten and wild animals feeding on them	Remarks
1	Acacia concinna	Seege	Pods-Deer*, Sambar, Gaur
2	Acacia ferruginea	Banni	Pods-Deer*, Sambar,
3	Artocarpus integrifolia	Halasu, Jack	Fruits-Monkeys, Bear Leaves- fodder	Fallen fruits of A.integrifolia and A.hirsutus are relished by many ungulates
4	Bauhinia sp.	Basavanapada	Pods- Gaur, Sambar, Deer*
5	Bombax ceiba	Buraga, Silk cotton	Flowers-Monkeys, Sambar, Deer*, Wild pig. Nectar for many birds
6	Careya arborea	Kumbia, Kaul	Bark-Sambar, Fruits-Elephant, Monkey, Porcupine, Sambar
7	Cassia fistula	Kakke	Pods-Bear, Monkeys
8	Cordia macleodii	Hadang	Fruits- Deer*, Gaur, birds
9	Cordia myxa	Challe	Friuits-Deer*, Sambar, Bear, birds
10	Dillenia pentagyna	Kanagalu	Fruits-Deer*, Sambar, Gaur, birds
11	Ficus spp.	Atti	Fruit- Birds, including Hornbills, bats etc., and ungulates such as Deer*, Sambar, etc. Leaves- fodder for herbivores	Keystone species with one or the other tree flowering throughout the year and eaten by large number of wild animals, both big and small
12	Grewia tiliaefolia	Dhaman; Dadaslu	Leaves-Sambar, Deer*,Fruits-Monkey, birds
13	Hydnocarpus laurifolia	Suranti; Toratte	Fruit-Porcupine
14	Spondias acuminate	Kaadmate	Fruits: Sambar, Porcupine, Deer*
15	Kydia calycina	Bende	Leaves –Ungulates	Seems to be eaten by ungulates as they are eaten by cattle.
16	Moullava spicata	Hulibarka	Fruits-Deer*, Sambar	Flowering spike is also eaten
17	Mucuna pruriens	Nasagunni kai	Leaves-Deer*
18	Phyllanthus emblica	Nelli; Gooseberry	Fruits-Sambar, Deer*
19	Strychnos nux-vomica	Kasarka	Fruits- pulp eaten by monkeys, Hornbills
20	Syzygium cumini	Nerale	Fruits- wild Pig, Deer*, Bear and several birds
21	Tectona grandis	Saaguvani; Teak	Bark- Elephants.	Elephants debark the tree in long strips and consume it.
22	Terminalia belerica	Tare	Fruits-Deer, Sambar
23	Tetrameles nudiflora	Kadu bende	Bark-Elephants	Favourite tree for bees to make hives
24	Xylia Xylocarpa	Jamba	Seeds-Gaint Squirrel, Monkeys
25	Zizhiphus oenoplia		Fruits-Jackels, Procupine, Deer*, Pangolin, birds
26	Ziziphus rugosa	Kaare	Fruits-Bear, birds

*Deer includes Mouse deer, Barking deer, Spotted deer
⦁ Afforestation of grassy blanks to be limited to very unproductive areas only. While selecting tree species for planting the animal community should be borne in mind. Patches have been observed where instead of raising natural vegetation the exotic industrial cum pulpwood species Acacia auriculiformis has been planted (Figure below). For example Acacia was planted up in Thayamaddi-Barpoli Cross and a few other places at anshi Dandeli tiger reserve.
⦁ Controlled fire to be used in grasslands in transition, such as under dicot weeds and woody vegetation. Such grasslands to be divided into blocks and alternate blocks to be set on fire. Volunteers may be trained and their services used in meticulous use of fire so as to promote grasses
⦁ Since legumes are nitrogen-rich and good as fodder, leguminous fodder herbs may be planted in abandoned agricultural fields to promote wildlife. Herbaceous climbers of legumes, that provide forage for wildlife may be promoted experimentally in some of the poor grade mono-culture plantations.
⦁ Natural succession inside monoculture plantations may be directed towards enhancing the food resources for wildlife.
⦁ Herbaceous forage legumes may be considered experimentally for planting along the sides of some of the forest roads.
⦁ Priority to be given for resettlement of villages 9along the animal corridor/movement paths) with large number of cattle. Some of the good pastures of importance to wild herbivores need to be spared from grazing by domestic cattle. In the peripheral villages, the concept of village fodder farms, to meet the fodder requirements of domestic cattle, needs to be promoted to prevent those cattle from entering the ADTR.