CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS FOR TERTIARY TREATMENT OF WASTEWATER

NUTRIENT AND METAL REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES OF DIFFERENT MACROPHYTES

Macrophyte	Removal efficiency				Reference	Type of waste water/method
Macrophyte	N	P	COD/BOD	Heavy metals	Reference	Type of waste water/method
Eichhornia crassipes (Water hyacinth)	65% (nitrate)	65% (phosphate)	75%		Shahabaldin et al., 2013	Domestic wastewater/batch method
	50%(TN)	50%(TP)	50%		Costa et al., 2014	Piggery waste with 20 days HRT
	21.78%-TN	23.02%-TP	64.44%-COD		Jianbo Lu et al., 2008	Duck farm
	72%-N	63%-P			Tripathy et al., 2003	Dairy effluent
				Cr (95%)	Mahmood et al., 2005	Textile wastewater
				Hg-119ng /g Cd-3992µg/g Cu-314 µg/g Cr-2.31mg/g Ni-1.68 mg/g	Molisani et al., 2006 KK Mishra et al., 2007 Hu et al., 2007 Verma et al., 2008
				Cr-2.36 mg/g	Ankur Gupta and Chandrajit Balomajumder, 2015	photosynthesis chamber under controlled condition
	2161 mg N/m2/day or 7887 kg N/ha/yr	542 mg P/m2/day or 1978 kg P/ha/yr			K.R Reddy and J.C.Tucker, 1983	microcosm aquaculture system
	Summer-1278 mg N/m2/day Winter-254 mg N/m2/day	Summer-243 mg P/m2/day Winter-49 mg P/m2/day			K. R. REDDY AND W. F. DE BUSK , 1985	microcosm retention ponds
				Zinc-95% (3.542 mg/g) Chromium-84% (2.412 mg/g)	Virendra Kumar Mishra and B.D. Tripathi, 2009	1.0,5.0,10.0 & 20.0 mg/l metal solutions , 11 days incubation period
				Cd-81% Cr-85% Cu-95% Zn-92% Fe-85.7%	Virendra Kumar Mishra and B.D. Tripathi, 2008	15 days lab experiment at three different concentrations (1.0, 2.0 and 5.0 mg /1) of metals
				Cr-65% Cu-65%	Lissy et al., 2011	Wastewater from simulated wetland
Eichhornia crassipes	1980 kg/ha/year	320 kg/ha/year		(kg/ha/year ) Ca-750 Mg-790 Na-260 K-3190 Fe-19 Mn-300 Zn-4 Cu-1	FAO
Pistia stratiotes	Summer-985 mg N/m2/day=9.85kg/ha/day Winter-258 mg N/m2/day	Summer-218 mg P/m2/day Winter-72 mg P/m2/day			K. R. REDDY AND W. F. DE BUSK , 1985	microcosm retention ponds
				Hg-0.57mg/g Cr-2.5mg/g Cd-2.13mg/g Ni-1.95mg/g	Mishra et al., 2009 Verma et al., 2008	Coal mining effluent
				Cd-78% Cr-81% Cu-96% Zn-90% Fe-87%	Virendra Kumar Mishra and B.D. Tripathi, 2008	15 days lab experiment at three different concentrations (1.0, 2.0 and 5.0 mg /1) of metals
	Summer-292mg N/m2/day Winter-70 mg N/m2/day	Summer-87mg P/m2/day Winter-18 mg P/m2/day			K. R. REDDY AND W. F. DE BUSK , 1985	retention ponds
Lemna minor				Ti-221 µg/g Cu-400 µg/g Pb-8.62 mg/g	Babic et al., 2009 Boule et al., 2009 Uysal and Taner 2009
	194.9 ± 18.9 g TN/m2/yr	10.4 ± 1.7 g TP/m2/yr	3869 ± 352g COD/m2/yr		Umesh et al., 2015	Manure slurry from dairy farm, surface flow wetland
	Summer-292mg N/m2/day=2.92kg/ha/day Winter-70mg N/m2/day	Summer-87mg P/m2/day Winter-18 mg P/m2/day			K. R. REDDY AND W. F. DE BUSK , 1985	microcosm retention ponds
Lemna japonica	0.4g/m2/day	0.1g/m2/day
Lemna gibba				Ur-897 µg/g As-1022 µg/g	Mkandawire et al., 2004
Spirodela polyrhiza	Summer-151mg N/m2/day Winter-135mg N/m2/day	Summer-34mg P/m2/day Winter-34 mg P/m2/day			K. R. REDDY AND W. F. DE BUSK , 1985	microcosm retention ponds
Spirodela polyrhiza				Cd-63% Cr-83% Cu-91% Zn-90% Fe-83.5%	Virendra Kumar Mishra and B.D. Tripathi, 2008	15 days lab experiment at three different concentrations (1.0, 2.0 and 5.0 mg /1) of metals
Azolla	Summer-108mg N/m2/day Winter-48mg N/m2/day	Summer-33mg P/m2/day Winter-10mg P/m2/day			K. R. REDDY AND W. F. DE BUSK , 1985	microcosm retention ponds
				Hg-0.44 mg/g	Mishra et al., 2009	Coal mining effluent
				Hg-70.8-578mg/kg Cr-91.1-356 mg/kg	R. Bennicelli et al, 2004	Aquarium with nutrient medium
Azolla pinnata				Fe-92.7% Zn-83% Cu-59.1% Mn-65.1% Co-95.0% Cd-90% Ni-73.1%	Elsharawy et al., 2004	Mixture of waste water
Salvinia	Summer-406mg N/m2/day Winter-96mg N/m2/day	Summer-105mg P/m2/day Winter-32mg P/m2/day			K. R. REDDY AND W. F. DE BUSK , 1985	microcosm retention ponds
Typha aungustifolia	48-54 g/m2				Maltais-Landry et al., 2009	Mesocosm with daily total N loading rates 1.16 g/m2
				Cr-20210 µg/g Zn-16325 µg/g	Firdaus-e-Bareen and Khilji, 2008
	922 kg N/ha	114 kgP/ha			Abdeslam Ennabili et al., 1998	Field study: Coastal wetlands (freshwater or brackish systems) were studied in three river mouth areas in the Tingitan Peninsula
				Cr-66.2 % Cu-68.3 % Zn-99.3% Ni-76.4%	Yadav A.K. et.al, 2012	Wetland microcosms

				Cr-66.2 % Cu-68.3 % Zn-99.3% Ni-76.4%	Yadav A.K. et.al, 2012	Wetland microcosms
Typha latifolia	N-2630 kg/ha/year	P-400 kg/ha/year		kg/ha/year ) Ca-1710 Mg-310 Na-730 K-4570 Fe-23 Mn-79 Zn-6 Cu-7	FAO
Combination of Water hyacinth, duckweed and blue-green algae	>90%(nitrate)	>90% (phosphate)	BOD-97%	20-100%	Sinha et al., 2000	Sewage water
Cyperus alternifolius				Cr-68.4% Cu-72.7% Zn-93.17% Ni-83.6%	Yadav A.K. et.al, 2012	Wetland microcosms
Ipomea aquatica	TN-75.5%	TP-41.5%	BOD-88.5% COD-84.5%		Hu et.al, 2008	horizontal-flow, Deep Flow Technique
Alternanthera philoxeroides	1780 kg/ha/year	200 kg/ha/year		(kg/ha/year ) Ca-320 Mg-320 Na-230 K-3220 Fe-45 Mn-27 Zn-6 Cu-1	FAO

HEAVY METAL CONCENTRATION OF DIFFERENT MACROPHYTES

MACROPHYTE SPECIES		HEAVY METALS (mg/kg)									REFERENCE
MACROPHYTE SPECIES		Cd	Cr	Pb	Zn	Cu	As	Mn	Hg	Ni	REFERENCE
Potamogeton	Root	1.57		12	512	47.8	5.85				Edward A. Martinez and Chemanji Shu-Nyamboli, 2011
Potamogeton	Shoot	0.46		1.1	116	11.5	0.79				Edward A. Martinez and Chemanji Shu-Nyamboli, 2011
Alternanthera philoxeroides	Whole plant	28.17±1.56		107.75±14.21	271.63±45.78						Jianguo Liu et.al, 2007
	underground	96.66±10.82		477.94±41.61	597.82±79.27
	aboveground	20.56±1.17		66.62±5.74	235.39±36.7
Alternanthera philoxeroides	Shoots			74 ±1.2	473 ± 2.0						H. Deng et al., 2006
	Roots			165 ±16	444 ±16						H. Deng et al., 2006
	Root					1.02-2.33				0.93-10.89	Gopeshwor Singh and Abhik Gupta,2015
	Shoot					0.48-7.26				0.38-4.32	Gopeshwor Singh and Abhik Gupta,2015
	Leaf	19.46±3.03									Nimisha and Abhik Gupta, 2015
	Stem	71.78±18.24
	Root	13.35±3.02
Alternanthera Philoxeroides	Whole plant	4.5	63.7	65.6	39.6	12.6		224.4		38.2	Aboud S. Jumbe and N. Nandini, 2012
Polygonum hydropiper	Whole plant	19.65 ± 1.88		90.42 ± 7.00	246.28 ± 27.51						Jianguo Liu et.al, 2007
	underground	92.51 ± 4.86		410.90 ± 56.84	753.10 ± 77.65
	aboveground	11.55 ± 1.28		54.81 ± 4.46	189.96 ± 26.60
Cyperus difformis	Whole plant	13.52 ± 0.90		84.04 ± 5.28	153.85 ± 5.06						Jianguo Liu et.al, 2007
	underground	10.67±0.67		59.80 ± 1.93	129.67 ± 8.26
	aboveground	14.24 ± 1.29		90.10 ± 6.12	159.89 ± 7.86
Cyperus rotundus	Whole plant	5.5	64.3	50.6	46	15.8		310.0		41.2	Aboud S. Jumbe and N. Nandini, 2012
Phragmites communis	Whole plant	4.98 ± 3.40		4.89 ± 1.71	47.31 ± 1.91						Jianguo Liu et.al, 2007
	underground	2.52 ± 0.26		9.59 ± 0.27	62.95 ± 0.68
	aboveground	5.60 ± 4.26		3.71 ± 2.20	43.40 ± 2.55
Phragmites australis	Root	1.13± 0.08	6.97 ± 0.19	16.54± 0.97	104.10± 9.28	14.98 ± 0.93		475.80± 11.91	5.22 ± 0.38	9.12 ± 0.20	G. Bonanno and R. Lo Giudice, 2010
	Rhizome	1.00± 0.08	1.52 ±0.06	15.30± 0.93	32.67 ± 2.36	4.33± 0.32		37.51± 2.82	3.19 ± 0.26	1.67± 0.14
	Stem	0.68± 0.06	0.40± 0.04	9.87± 0.80	10.04 ± 0.87	2.31± 0.2		27.92 ± 2.34	1.05 ±0.12	0.48 ± 0.08
	leaf	1.05± 0.10	0.69 ± 0.04	13.20 ± 0.74	28.40 ±1.72	4.13± 0.19		308.30± 11.47	1.73 ±0.23	1.69 ± 0.15
	Shoot				11.88-30.9	1.98-19.62					Tanja R. Maksimovic et.al, 2014
	Whole plant	3.21		42.4	843.2	129.21				151.6	Kamel Abdalla Kamel, 2013
Cyperus alternifolius	Lateral roots	0.3		74	4570	15600		4850			S. cheng et.al, 2002
Cyperus alternifolius	leaves	8.4		1.2	77.3	7.1		68.9			S. cheng et.al, 2002
Typha latifolia	Root	<0.5-1.6	6.55-61.3		45.7-175	22.8-53.8		4961-20000		8.33-45.3	Zohra Ben Salem et.al, 2014
	Rhizome	<0.5	1-1.92		9.68-26.59	1.81-6.28		334-1210		<1-4.12
	Stem	<0.5	<1-3.78		7.85-41.48	<1-4.77		467-1460		<1-2.14
	Leaves	<0.5	<1		<1-1.9	<1-7.46		55.4-2800		<1-1.03
Typha angustata	Whole plant	0.46		8.28	169.48	31.55				28.86	J.I. Nirmal Kumar et al., 2006

Shoot				9.51-19.76	2.69-8.28			Tanja R. Maksimovic et.al, 2014
Typha sp	Shoot	0.01			23.9			3.1	Severine Ladislas et.al, 2012
	Root	0.09			47.3			6.8	Severine Ladislas et.al, 2012
	Whole plant	1.38		23.87	862.4	153.2		91.55	Kamel Abdalla Kamel, 2013
Eichhornia crassipes	Shoot		0.7-1.14			4.79-6.99			A. Klumpp et al., 2002
Eichhornia crassipes	Root		2.93-12.57			9.18-21.1			A. Klumpp et al., 2002
Eichhornia crassipes	Whole plant	1.8		37.26	1677	53.8		125.3	Kamel Abdalla Kamel, 2013
	Whole plant			4.47-9.81	235.25-709.07	16.32-1617.21		4.81-28.83	Abida Begum et.al ,2010
	Whole plant	5.1	75.4	80.5	36.6	10.1	216.6	41.3	Aboud s. Jumbe and N. Nandini, 2012
	Whole plant	0.72-21.53	1.2-160.85	22.0-98.5	27.4-58.3	BDL-20.95	100.5-306.8	26.0-65.32	Aboud s. Jumbe and N. Nandini, 2009
Pistia stratiotes	Whole plant		1.43-3.14			5.15-12.69			A. Klumpp et al., 2002
	Shoot	0.07-0.87		2.27-14	27.03-120.97	4.83-7.5	471.77-984.7	0.92-1.54	T.m.Galal and E.A. Farahat, 2015
	Root	0.83-2.6		10.7-21.67	55.67-434.67	14.57-30.77	6529.53-14503.53	12.62-14.94	T.m.Galal and E.A. Farahat, 2015
Ceratophyllum demersum	Whole plant	4.46	53.11						L. VahdatiRaad and H. Khara, 2012
Ceratophyllum demersum	Whole plant	2.35		208.71	1172.8	96.3		48.09	Kamel Abdalla Kamel, 2013
Ipomea aquatica	Whole plant	0.21		2.67	639.04	7.41		7.95	J.I. Nirmal Kumar et al., 2006
Ipomea sp	Stem	59.01	775.62		141.42	126.01	182		Gupta S et.al, 2008
	Root	48.2	364.13		149.7	118.39	196.83
	leaves	54.08	434.79		129.03	97.07	204.13
Ipomea carnea	Whole plant	4.2	65.3	51.8	48.4	10.5	240.1	41.1	Aboud s. Jumbe and N. Nandini, 2012
Hydrilla verticillata	Whole plant	0.44		6.2	155.18	21.8		20.09	J.I. Nirmal Kumar et al., 2006
Hydrilla verticillata	Whole plant			6.85-131.84	9.05-745.35	18.55-1756.52		8.93-30.31	Abida Begum et.al , 2010
Nelumbo nucifera	Whole plant	0.59		5.28	221.03	23.2		20.5	J.I. Nirmal Kumar et al., 2006
Nelumbo nucifera	Whole plant			5.58-10.55	246.75-743	17.65-1732.35		5.64-29.4	Abida Begum et.al , 2010
Azolla caroliniana	Whole plant	259		416					Rakhshaee et al., 2006
Lemna gibba	Whole plant	1.34		104	531.5	36.4		25.23	Kamel Abdalla Kamel, 2013
Polygonum glabrum	Whole plant	3.7	64.4	72.4	56.7	7.8	302	47.5	Aboud s. Jumbe and N. Nandini, 2012
Vallisneria spiralis	Whole plant	1.28		9.2	239.17	66.26		28.75	J.I. Nirmal Kumar et al., 2006

Botanical glossary

Sl.No	Botanical term	Description
1	Auricle	Ear like appendage
2	Bract	a modified leaf or scale, typically small, with a flower or flower cluster in its axis
3	Campanulate	Bell shaped
4	Capsule	A dry dehiscent fruit that opens along 2 or more valves or teeth to release 2 or more seeds
5	Caudate	Long narrowly tipped
6	Cauline	Located at the base of a plant or stem; especially arising directly from the root or rootstock or a root-like stem.
7	Ciliate	Hairy
8	Cleistogamous	type of automatic self-pollination of certain plants that can propagate by using non-opening, self-pollinating flowers
9	Cordate	Heart shaped
10	Corm	A rounded underground storage organ present in plants consisting of a swollen stem base covered with scale leaves.
11	Crenate	having a round-toothed or scalloped edge
12	Culm	stem of any type of plant, specifically refers to the above-ground or aerial stems of grasses and sedges
13	Cuneate	Wedge shaped
14	Decussate	Intersected or crossed in the form of an X
15	Dimorphic	occurring in or representing two distinct forms
16	Dioecious	having the male and female reproductive organs in separate individuals
17	Disseminules	a part of a plant that serves to propagate it, such as a seed or a fruit
18	Distichous	Arranged in two opposite rows
19	Drupelet	one of the individual parts of an aggregate fruit
20	Elliptic	relating to or having the form of an ellipse
21	Ensiform	shaped like a sword blade; long and narrow with sharp edges and a pointed tip
22	Fimbriate	fringed
23	Fronds	the leaf or leaf-like part of a palm, fern, or similar plant
24	Fusiform	Spindle shaped, rod shaped gradually narrowing from the middle towards end
25	Glabrous	Without hairs
26	Glumes	bract (leaf-like structure) below a spikelet in the inflorescence
27	Heterosporous	production of spores of two different sizes and sexes by the sporophytes
28	Inconspicous	not clearly visible
29	Inflorescence	Main flowering twig
30	Lanceolate	shaped like a lance head; of a narrow oval shape tapering to a point at each end
31	Megaprothalli	The development stage of megaspore
32	Megaspore	plant spores that develop into female gametophytes
33	Microspore	plant spores that develop into male gametophytes
34	Monoecious	having both the male and female reproductive organs in the same individual
35	Orbicular	Circular and flat
36	Pedicel	a small stalk bearing an individual flower in an inflorescence
37	Peduncle	the stalk bearing a flower or fruit, or the main stalk of an inflorescence
38	Pendulous	Hanging
39	Perennial	A plant that lives for several years
40	Petaloid	Petal like
41	Pilose	Covered with soft, weak, thin and clearly separated hairs
42	Polygamous	Bisexual and unisexual flowers in same plant
43	Prostrate	growing closely along the ground
44	Serrate	Closely small toothed
45	Serrulate	Finely serrate
46	Sessile	Without stalk
47	Sinuate	having a wavy or sinuous margin; with alternate rounded notches and lobes
48	Solitary	single
49	Spathe	Large bract ensheathing an inflorescence
50	Spadix	a spike of minute flowers closely arranged round a fleshy axis and typically enclosed in a spathe
51	Spikelet	The basic unit of a grass flower, consisting of two glumes or outer bracts at the base and one or more florets above.
52	Spirodistichous	arranged alternately in two opposite vertical rows
53	Sporocarp	Specialised type of structure found in some ferns whose primary function is the production and release of spores
54	Staminodes	a sterile or abortive stamen
55	Stipule	A small leaf-like appendage to a leaf, typically borne in pairs at the base of the leaf stalk
56	Stolon	A creeping horizontal plant stem or runner that takes root at points along its length to form new plants
57	Stoloniferous	Plants with stolons
58	Translucent	Semi- transparent
59	Trioecious	having male, female, and hermaphrodite flowers in three different plants
60	Umbel	An inflorescence which consists of a number of short flower stalks (called pedicels) which spread from a common point, somewhat like umbrella ribs
61	Undulating	Wavy

Source: Rao G R, Vishnu D. Mukri, Subash Chandran M D, Ramachandra T V, 2017. Forest Trees of Central Western Ghats – Field Manual, ENVIS Technical Report 121, Sahyadri Conservation Series 67, Energy & Wetlands Research Group, CES, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012

REFERENCES

Annelise Gerber, Carina J Cillers, Carin Van Ginkel and Rene Glen (2004). Easy Identification of Aquatic Plants, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Pretoria.
Arias, C.A., Brix, H., (2005). Initial experience from a compact vertical flow constructed wetland treating single household wastewater. In: Vymazal, J. (Ed.), Natural and Constructed Wetlands: Nutrients, Metals and Management. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands, pp. 52–64.
Arvind Kumar (2015). Freshwater Plankton and Macrophytes of India, Daya Publishing House, New Delhi.
Biswas K and Calder C.C (1954). Handbook of common water and marsh plants of India and Burma, Second edition, Government of India Press, Culcatta.
Christopher D. K. Cook (1996). Aquatic and Wetland Plants of India- Oxford University Press New Delhi.
Calvert G., Liessmann L. (2014). Wetland Plants of the Townsville–Burdekin Flood Plain. Lower Burdekin Landcare Association Inc., Ayr.
Cooper P., Smith M. and Maynard H., (1996). The Design and Performance of a Nitrifiying Vertical Flow Reed Bed Treatment System; Water Science and Technology; Vol: 35 (5).
Cowardin, L.M., Carter, V., Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T. (1979). Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats of the United States, 103 pp. Washington, D.C. U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Cronk, J. K., & Fennessy, M. S. (2001). Wetland plants: Biology and Ecology. CRC press.
Denny P. (1997); Implementation of Constructed Wetlands in Developing countries; Water science and technology; Vol: 35; Oxford.
Encyclopedia of life: eol.org
EPA, (2000); Constructed Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters; National Risk Management Research Laboratory Office of Research and Development U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Cincinnati, Ohio.
Faulkner, S.P., Richardson, C.J., (1989). Physical and chemical characteristics of freshwater wetland soils. In: Hammer, D.A. (Ed.), Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, Michigan, pp. 41–72.
Global invasive species database: http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/.
Greenway M., Woolley A. (1999);Constructed wetlands in Queensland: Performance Efficiency and Nutrient Bioaccumulation; Ecological Engineering, Vol.: 12, Pg.: 39-55
Handbook of utilization of aquatic plants, FAO, http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6862e/X6862E11.htm
Holm et al (1997). World Weeds: Natural Histories and Distribution. John Wiley, New York.
Julien, M. H. and M. W. Griffiths (eds.). (1998). Biological Control of Weeds: A World Catalogue of Agents and Their Target Weeds, 4th ed. CAB International, Wallingford, United Kingdom.
Julien M.H., Bourne, A.S. and V.H.K. Low. (1992). Growth of the weed Alternanthera philoxeroides (Martius) Grisebach, (alligator weed) in aquatic and terrestrial habitats in Australia. Journal of Aquatic Botany (1992) 7: 102-108.
Kadlec, R.H., Wallace, S., (2008); Treatment Wetlands. 2nd ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Kadlec R. H., Knight R. L. (1996); Treatment Wetlands, Florida, America; CRC press.
Kadlec, R.H., Knight, R.L., Vymazal, J., Brix, H., Cooper, P. F., Haberl, R., (2000). Constructed Wetlands for Water Pollution Control: Processes, Performance, Design and Operation, IWA Scientific and Technical Report No. 8, London.
Oosterhout, Elissa (2007). Weeds of National Significance: Alligator weed Control Manual. NSW Department of Primary Industries.
Ramachandra, T. V., Mahapatra, D. M., Sudarshan P. B Asulabha, K. S., Sincy, V., and Bharath, H. A., (2014). Integrated Wetlands Ecosystem: Sustainable Model to Mitigate Water Crisis in Bangalore, ENVIS Technical Report 76, Environmental Information System, CES, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012.
Ramachandra, T.V., Mahapatra, D.M., Vinay, S., Sincy, V., Asulabha, K.S., Bhat, S.P., Aithal, B.H., 2017. Bellandur and varthur Lakes Rejuvination Blueprint, ENVIS Technical Report 116, Environment Information System, CES, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.
Ramaswamy, S.V., & Razi, B.A. (1973). Flora of Bangalore District. Mysore University Press.
Raja Chakraborty, Biplab De, N. Devanna, and Saikat Sen (2013). Antitussive, expectorant activity of Marsilea minuta L., an Indian vegetable, Journal of Advanced Pharmaceutical Technology and Research. 4(1): 61–64.
Reed S. C., Middlebrooks E. J., Crites R. W., (1988). Natural system for Waste Management; McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Sven Erik Jorgensen (2009). Applications of Ecological engineering, Academic Press.
UN-HABITAT, (2008). Constructed Wetlands Manual, UN-HABITAT Water for Asian Cities Programme Nepal, Kathmandu.
Vymazal, J. (2007). Removal of nutrients in various types of constructed wetlands. Sci. Total Environ. 380 (1–3), 48–65.
Vymazal J., Brix H., Cooper P., Haberl R., Perfler R., Laber J. (1998). Removal Mechanism and Types of Constructed Wetlands; Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater treatments in Europe; Backhuys publishers; 17-66.
Wetland plants of Queensland: A field guide: https://books.google.co.in.
Wu S., Wallace S., Brix H., Kuschk P., Kirui W. K., Masi F., DongR. (2015). Treatment of industrial effluents in constructed wetlands: Challenges, operational strategies and overall performance; Environmental Pollution 201 107-120.
Zhang D-Q, Jinadasa K.B.S.N., Gersberg R. M., Liu Y., Tan S. K., Ng W. J (2015). Application of constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment in tropical and subtropical regions (2000–2013); Journal of Environmental Sciences 30: 30 – 46.

Related Publications (of Energy & Wetlands Research Group, CES TE 15)

Ramachandra T.V., Durga Madhab Mahapatra, Sudarshan P. Bhat, Asulabha K.S., Sincy Varghese, Bharath H. Aithal, 2014. Integrated Wetlands Ecosystem: Sustainable Model to Mitigate Water Crisis in Bangalore, ENVIS Technical Report 76, Environmental Information System, CES, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012
Ramachandra T V, Vinay S and Bharath H.Aithal, 2015. Detrimental landuse changes in Agara-Belllandur wetland, ENVIS Technical Report 95, CES, IISc, Bangalore, India
Ramachandra T V, Asulabha K S, Sincy V, Vinay S, Bharath H.Aithal, Sudarshan P. Bhat, and Durga M. Mahapatra, 2015. Pathetic status of wetlands in Bangalore: Epitome of inefficient and uncoordinated Governance, ENVIS Technical Report 93, CES, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012
Ramachandra T V, Asulabha K S, Sincy V, Sudarshan Bhat and Bharath H.Aithal, 2015. Wetlands: Treasure of Bangalore, ENVIS Technical Report 101, Energy & Wetlands Research Group, CES, IISc, Bangalore, India
Ramachandra T V, Durga Madhab Mahapatra, Asulabha K S, Sincy Varghese, 2017. Foaming or Algal Bloom in Water bodies of India: Remedial Measures - Restrict Phosphate (P) based Detergents, ENVIS Technical Report 108, Environmental Information System, CES, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012
Ramachandra T V, Vinay S, Durga Madhab Mahapatra, Sincy Varghese, Bharath H. Aithal, 2016. Water situation in Bengaluru, ENVIS Technical Report 114, Environmental Information System, CES, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012
Ramachandra T V, Durga Madhab Mahapatra, Vinay S, Sincy V, Asulabha K S, Sudarshan Bhat, Bharath H. Aithal, 2017. Bellandur and Varthur Lakes Rejuvenation Blueprint, ENVIS Technical Report 116, Environmental Information System, CES, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012
Ramachandra T V, Vinay S, Asulabha K S, Sincy V, Sudarshan Bhat, Durga Madhab Mahapatra, Bharath H. Aithal, 2017. Rejuvenation Blueprint for lakes in Vrishabhavathi valley, ENVIS Technical Report 122, Environmental Information System, CES, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012

Ramachandra, T.V., Bharath H. Aithal,and Durgappa, D. S., Insights to urban dynamics through landscape spatial pattern analysis, Int. J Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 2012,18,329-343,.
Ramachandra, T.V., Bharath, H. Aithal and Sreejith, K., GHG footprint of major cities in India, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2015, 44,473–495
Ramachandra, T.V., Bharath, H. Aithal, Vinay, S., et al., Trees of Bengaluru, ENVIS Technical Report 75, ENVIS, Centre for Ecological Sciences, IISc, Bangalore, 2014. 75p.

Ramachandra T.V., Bharath H. Aithal, 2016. Bangalore’s Reality: towards unlivable status with unplanned urban trajectory, Current Science (Guest Editorial), 110(12):2207-2208, 25th June 2016.
Ramachandra T V, Vinay S, Bharath H. Aithal, 2017. Frequent Floods in Bangalore: Causes and Remedial Measures, ENVIS Technical Report 123, Environmental Information System, CES, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012
Sudarshan Bhat, Mahesh M K and Ramachandra T V, 2017. Macrophytes of Bangalore Wetlands, ENVIS Technical Report 126, Energy & Wetlands Research Group, CES, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012
Ramachandra T V, Vinay S, Bharath H. Aithal, 2017. Koramangala Floods: Causes, ENVIS Technical Report 131, Environmental Information System, CES, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012