GHG footprint of Major cities in India
Abstract  |   Introduction  |   Objective  |   Method  |   Results and Discussion  |   Conclusion  |   Acknowledgement  |   References  |   PDF  |   HOME

T.V. Ramachandra1,2,3,*, Bharath H. Aithal1, K. Sreejith1


1Energy and Wetlands Research Group, Centre for Ecological Sciences(CES), Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012, INDIA.
2Centre for Sustainable Technologies,
3Centre for infrastructure, Sustainable Transportation and Urban Planning (CiSTUP)
*Corresponding author: T.V. Ramachandra, cestvr@ces.iisc.ernet.in
Web: http://wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy

Citation:T.V. Ramachandra, Bharath H. Aithal and K. Sreejith, 2015. GHG footprint of Major cities in India, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 44 (2015) 473–495.

References

  1. IPCC, Report by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report [Core Writing Team: Pachauri, R.K and Reisinger, A. (eds.)]. Geneva, Switzerland 2007a; p. 104.
  2. IPCC, Report by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report B. Mertz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer (Eds.), Climate change 2007b: Mitigation, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
  3. Ramanathan R, Parikh JK. Transport sector in India: an analysis in the context of sustainable development. Transport Policy 1999; 6: 35-45.
  4. Wang, W. C., et al., Greenhouse effects due to man-made perturbations of trace gases. Science 1976; 194: 685-690.
  5. Keeling CD. The concentration and isotopic abundances of carbon dioxide in rural and marine air. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 1961; 24: 277-298.
  6. Keeling CD. Rewards and penalties of monitoring the Earth. Annual Review of Energy and Environment 1986; 23: 25-82.
  7. Steele LP. Atmospheric methane, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and nitrous oxide from Cape Grim air samples analyzed by gas chromatography. In: Baseline Atmospheric Program Australia, 1994-95 [Francey, R.J., A.L. Dick, and N. Derek (eds.)]. Bureau of Meteorology and CSIRO Division of Atmospheric Research, Melbourne, Australia, pp. 107-110.
  8. Graedel TE., McRae JE. On the possible increase of atmospheric methane and carbon monoxide concentrations during the last decade. Geophys. Research Letters 1980; 7: 977-979.
  9. Fraser PJ, Khalil MAK, Rasmussen RA, and Crawford AJ. Trends of atmospheric methane in the southern hemisphere. Geophysical Research Letters 1981; 8:1063-1066.
  10. Blake DR, et al. Global increase in atmospheric methane concentrations between 1978 and 1980. Geophysical Research Letters 1982; 9:477-480.
  11. Dlugokencky EJ, Masarie KA, Lang PM, Tans PP. Continuing decline in the growth rate of the atmospheric methane burden. Nature 1998; 393: 447-450.
  12. Weiss RF. The temporal and spatial distribution of tropospheric nitrous oxide. Journal of Geophysical Research 1981; 86:7185-195.
  13. Khalil MAK, Rasmussen RA. Nitrous oxide: Trends and global mass balance over the last 3000 years. Ann. Glaciol 1988; 10: 73-79.
  14. Butler JH, Battle M, Bender ML, et al. A record of atmospheric halocarbons during the twentieth century from polar firn air. Nature 1999; 399: 749-755.
  15. Harnisch J, Eisenhauer A. Natural CF4 and SF6 on Earth. Geophysical Research Letters 1998; 2: 2401-2404.
  16. United Nations. Kyoto protocol to the United Nations framework convention on climate change, United Nations, 1998.
  17. Delmas RJ, Ascencio JM, Legrand M. Polar ice evidence that atmospheric CO2 20,000 yr BP was 50% of present. Nature 1980; 284: 155-157.
  18. Neftel A. Ice core sample measurements give atmospheric CO2 content during the Past 40,000 Yr. Nature 1982; 295: 220-223.
  19. Berner W, Oeschger H, Stauffer B. Information on the CO2 cycle from ice core studies. Radiocarbon 1982; 22: 227-235.
  20. Indermuhle A, Holocene carbon-cycle dynamics based on CO2 trapped in ice at Taylor Dome, Antarctica. Nature 1998; 398: 121-126.
  21. Houghton JT, Callander BA, Varney SK (eds). Climate Change 1992. The Supplementary Report to the IPCC Scientific Assessment, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press.
  22. Neftel A, Moor E, Oeschger H, Stauffer B. Evidence from polar ice cores for the increase in atmospheric CO2 in the past 2 centuries. Nature 1985; 315: 45-47.
  23. Etheridge DM, Natural and anthropogenic changes in atmospheric CO2 over the last 1000 years from air in Antarctic ice and firn. Journal of Geophysical Research 1996; 101: 4115-4128.
  24. IPCC. Report of the twelfth season of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Mexico City, 11-13 September 1996.
  25. IPCC. Principles Governing IPCC Work. Approved at the Fourteenth Session, Vienna:1-3 October 1998.
  26. IPCC. Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories , editors: J Penman, D Kruger, I Galbally, T Hiraishi, B Nyenzi, S Emmanul, L Buendia, R Hoppaus, T Martinsen, J Meijer, K Miwa and K Tanabe. Published for the IPCC by the Institute for Global Environmental Strategies, Japan ISBN 4-88788-000-6.
  27. IPCC. Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Houghton, J. T., Y. Ding, D. J. Griggs, M. Noguer, P. J. van der Linden, X. Dai, K. Maskell and C. A. Johnson (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2001: pp 881.
  28. IPCC. Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Houghton, J.T., et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA: 2001a: pp 881.
  29. IPCC. Good Practice Guidance for Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry, Edited by Jim Penman, Michael Gytarsky, Taka Hiraishi, Thelma Krug, Dina Kruger, Riitta Pipatti, Leandro Buendia, Kyoko Miwa, Todd Ngara, Kiyoto Tanabe and Fabian Wagner. Published by the Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES) for the IPCC ISBN 4-88788-003-7, 2006.
  30. IPCC. 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T. and Tanabe K. (eds). Published: IGES, Japan, 2006.
  31. EPA. Methane and Nitrous Oxide Emissions from Natural Sources. United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2010.
  32. Bouwman AF Exchange of greenhouse gases between terrestrial ecosystems and the atmosphere. In: Bouman A. F. (ed) Soils and the Greenhouse Effect, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1990: pp 61-127.
  33. Bronson KF, Neue HU, Singh U, Abao Jr. EB.  Automated chamber measurements of methane and nitrous oxide flux in a flooded rice soil: I. Residue, nitrogen and water management. Soil Science Society of America Journal 1997; 61: 981-987.
  34. Le Treut H, Somerville R, Cubasch U, Ding Y, et al. Historical Overview of Climate Change. In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2007.
  35. Maslin, M. (2004). “Global Warming, a very short introduction”, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
  36. Anthony J, McMichael, Rosalie Woodruff, Simon Hales. Climate change and human health: present and future risks. The Lancet 2006;367:859-869.
  37. Dunn S, Flavin C. Moving the climate change agenda forward: In State of the World 2002. Special World Summit Edition. NY: WW Norton and Company, 2002; p. 25-50.
  38. Hasselman K. Optimal fingerprints for the detection of time dependent climate change, Journal of Climate 2003; 6: 1957-1971.
  39. North GR, Kim KY. Detection of forced climate signals. Part II: Simulation results, Journal of Climate 1995; 6: 409-417.
  40. Schlesinger ME, Ramankutty N. An oscillation in the global climate system of period 65-70 years, Nature 1994; 360:330-333.
  41. Stern D, Common M, Barbier E. Economic Growth and Environmental Degradation: the Environmental Kuznets Curve and Sustainable Development, World Development 1996; 24: 1151-1160.
  42. Hingane LS, Rupa Kumar K, Ramana Murthy BV. Long-term trends of surface air temperature in India. International Journal of Climatology 1985; 5: 521-528.
  43. Kumar U, Jain MC, Pathak H, Kumar S, Majumdar D. Nitrous oxide emissions from different fertilizers and its mitigation by nitrification inhibitors in irrigated rice. Biology and Fertility of Soils 2000; 32:474-478.
  44. McKinnon AC, Piecyk MI. Logistics 2050: Moving freight by road in a very low carbon world. Logistics Research Centre, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, 2010.
  45. Benjamin K, Sovacool, Marilyn BA. Twelve metropolitan carbon footprints: A preliminary comparative global assessment. Energy Policy 2010; 38: 4856-4869.
  46. Shafik N, Bandyopadhyay S. Economic growth and environmental quality: Time series and Cross-country evidence. Policy Research Working Paper Series 904, the World Bank, 1992.
  47. Cook Earl. The flow of energy in an industrial society. Energy and Power; A scientific American Book San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Co. 1971: pp. 83-91.
  48. Goldemberg Jose. Energy needs in developing countries and sustainability. Science 1995; 269: 1058-1059.
  49. Humphrey, Craig R, Frederick R. B. Environment, Energy and Society, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishers, 1984.
  50. Ying Fan, Lan-Cui Liu, Gang Wu, Hsien-Tang Tsai, Yi-Ming Wei. Changes in carbon intensity in China: Empirical findings from 1980-2003. Ecological Economics 2007; 62 (3-4): 683-691.
  51. World bank, http://worldbank.org , last accesed 24th march 2013
  52. Rao MN, Reddy BS. Variations in energy use by Indian households: an analysis of micro level data. Energy 2007; 32(2):143-152.
  53. Rao Narasimha, Girish Sant, Sudhir Chella Rajan. An overview of Indian Energy Trends: Low Carbon Growth and Development Challenges. Prayas Energy Group, India, 2009.
  54. Kennedy C, Julia Steinberger, Barrie Gasson, Yvonne Hansen, et al. Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Global Cities. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009; 43: 7297-7302.
  55. Kennedy C, Julia Steinberger, Barrie Gasson, Yvonne Hansen et al. Methodology for inventorying greenhouse gas emissions from global cities. Energy Policy 2010; 38: 4828-4837.
  56. Wiedmann, T., & Minx, J. (2007). A definition of carbon footprint. ISA UK Research Report 07-01, Durham, ISA UK Research & Consulting.
  57. Wackernagel, M. and Rees, W. E. (1996). Our Ecological Footprint - Reducing Human Impact on the Earth. New Society Publishers Gabriola Island, B.C., Canada.
  58. Kleiner, K. (2007). The corporate race to cut carbon. Nature, 3, 40-43.
  59. Jessica Abbott. Report- What is Carbon Footprint, 19 February 2008, The Edinburg Centre for Carbon Management, 2008.
  60. Andrew JE. What is Carbon Footprint? An overview of definitions and methodologies. In Vegetable Industry Carbon Footprint Study – Discussion Papers and Workshop, 26 September 2008. Sydney: Horticulture Australia Limited.
  61. ISO. ISO 14064-1:2006. Greenhouse gases part 1: Specification with guidance at the organization level for quantification and reporting of greenhouse gas emissions and removals, 2006a.
  62. ISO. ISO 14064-2:2006. Greenhouse gases part 2: Specification with guidance at the project level for quantification, monitoring and reporting of greenhouse gas emission reductions or removal enhancements, 2006b.
  63. Carbon Trust. Carbon Footprint Measurement Methodology, Version 1.1. The Carbon Trust, 007, London, UK. http://www.carbontrust.co.uk.
  64. BSI. Publicly available specification 2050. Specification for the assessment of the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of goods and services. British Standards Institute, 2008.
  65. WRI/WBCSD. The greenhouse gas protocol: A corporate accounting and reporting standard revised edition. Geneva: World Business Council for Sustainable Development and World Resource Institute, 2004.
  66. Matthew Elrod, Greenhouse Warming Potential Model. Based on Journal of Chemical Education, 1999; 76: 1702-1705.
  67. Global Warming Potentials, Climate Change 1995, The Science of Climate Change:   Summary for Policymakers. Technical Summary of the Working Group I Report, page 22, 1995.  (Accessed on 14th July 2013).
  68. Bhatia Pankaj. Methodologies for Measuring the Carbon Footprint, June 2008, ICTS and Climate change, International Symposium, London, 2008.
  69. Carbon Trust. Carbon Footprint Measurement Methodology, Version 1.1". 27 February 2007, The Carbon Trust, London, UK, available at http://www.carbontrust.co.uk, 2007a.
  70. Carbon Trust. Carbon footprinting. An introduction for organizations. Available at http://www.carbontrust.co.uk/publications/publicationdetail.htm?productid=CTV033. 2007b. Accessed on 5 May 2013.
  71. Courchene TJ, Allan JR. Climate change: The case of carbon tariff/tax. Policy Options 2008; 3: 59-64.
  72. Hammond G. Time to give due weight to the ‘carbon footprint’ issue. Nature 2007; 445(7125): 256.
  73. Hoornweg D, Lorraine Sugar and Claudia Lorena Trejos Gomez. Cities and greenhouse gas emissions: moving forward. Environment and Urbanization. 2011; 23: 207-227.
  74. Laurence Wright A, Jonathan Coello, Simon Kemp, Ian Williams. Carbon footprinting for Climate change management in cities. Carbon Management, 2011; 2: 49-60.
  75. ADB, 2006. Energy Efficiency and Climate Change Considerations for on-Road Transport in Asia. Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines.
  76. INCCA. India: Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Indian Network for Climate Change Assessment (INCCA), the Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India, 2010.
  77. ALGAS. Asia least cost greenhouse gas abatement strategy project, Country Case study India. Asian Development Bank, Manila, 1998.
  78. NATCOM. India’s Initial National Communication to the UNFCC. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, 2004.
  79. Chakraborty NI, Mukherjee A, Santra K, et al. Measurement of CO2, CO, SO2 and NO emissions from coal based thermal power plants in India. Atmospheric Environment 2008; 42:1073-1082.
  80. Chun Ma, Mei-ting Ju, Xiao-chun Zhang, Hong-yuan Li. Energy consumption and carbon emissions in a coastal city in China. Procedia Environmental Sciences 2011; 4: 1-9.
  81. Gurjar BR, van Aardenne JA, Lelieveld J, Mohan M. Emission estimates and trends (1990-2000) for megacity Delhi and implications. Atmospheric Environment 2004; 38: 5663-5681.
  82. Qader MR, Electricity Consumption and GHG emissions in GCC Countries. Energies 2009; 2: 1201-1213.
  83. Raghuvansi SP, Avinash Chandra, Ashok Kumar Raghav. Carbon dioxide emissions from coal based power generation in India. Energy Conversion and Management 2006; 47: 427-441.
  84. Shobhakar Dhakal. Urban energy use and carbon emissions from cities in China and policy implications. Energy Policy 2009; 37: 4208-4219.
  85. Weisser. A guide to life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from electric supply technologies. Energy 2007; 32:1543-1559.
  86. POST. Carbon footprint of electricity generation. POST note 268, October 2006, Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology, London, UK. http://www.parliament.uk/documents/upload/postpn268.pdf, 2006.
  87. Raghuvansi S. P, Avinash Chandra, Ashok Kumar Raghav (2006). Carbon dioxide emissions from coal based power generation in India. Energy Conversion and Management, 47 (4), Pages 427-441.
  88. Gurjar BR, Nagpure AS, Prashant Kumar, Nalin Sahni. Pollutant emissions from road vehicles in mega-city Kolkata, India: Past and Present Trends, Journal of Air Pollution Control 2010; 10:18-30.  
  89. Garg Amit, Sumana Bhattacharya, Shukla PR, Dadhwal VK. Regional and sectoral assessment of greenhouse gas emissions in India. Atmospheric Environment 2004; 35: 2679-2695.
  90. Christopher Kennedy, Julia Steinberger, Barrie Gasson, Yvonne Hansen, Timothy Hillman, Miroslav Havranek, Diane Pataki, Aumnad Phdungsilp, Anu Ramaswami and Gara Villalba Mendez. Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Global Cities. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009; 43; 7297-7302.
  91. Christopher Kennedy, Julia Steinberger, Barrie Gasson, Yvonne Hansen, Timothy Hillman, Miroslav Havranek, Diane Pataki, Aumnad Phdungsilp, Anu Ramaswami and Gara Villalba Mendez. Methodology for inventorying greenhouse gas emissions from global cities. Energy Policy 38; 2010: 4828-4837.
  92. Chun Ma, Mei-ting Ju, Xiao-chun Zhang, Hong-yuan Li.. Energy consumption and carbon emissions in a coastal city in China. Procedia Environmental Sciences 4; 2011:1-9.
  93. Pachauri, S., Spreng, D., 2002. Direct and indirect energy requirements of households in India. Energy Policy 30 (6), 511-523.
  94. BSI. Publicly available specification 2050. Specification for the assessment of the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of goods and services. British Standards Institute, 2008.
  95. Garg Amit, Bhushan Kankal, Shukla PR. Methane emissions in India: Sub regional and sectoral trends. Atmospheric Environment 2011; 45: 4922-4929.
  96. Garg Amit, Shukla PR, Manmohan Kapshe, Deepa Menon. Indian methane and nitrous oxide emissions and mitigation flexibility. Atmospheric Environment 2004; 38: 1965-1977.
  97. Garg Amit, Shukla PR, Manmohan Kapshe. The sectoral trends of multigas emissions inventory of India. Atmospheric Environment 2006; 40: 4608-4620.
  98. Murthy NS, Panda M, et al.  Economic development, poverty reduction and carbon emissions in India. Energy Economics 1997a; 19: 327-354.
  99. Murthy NS, Panda M, et al.  Economic growth, energy demand and carbon dioxide emissions in India: 1990–2020, Environment and Development Economics 1997b; 2(2): 173-193.
  100. Pachauri S. An analysis of cross-sectional variations in total household energy requirements in India using micro survey data. Energy Policy 2004; 32: 1723-1735.
  101. Parikh J. Poverty-environment Nexus, International Journal of Global Environmental Issues 2001;1(1).
  102. Gupta AK, Subhankar Nag, Mukhopadhyay UK. Characterisation of PM10, PM2.5 and benzene soluble organic fraction of particulate matter in an urban area of Kolkata, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 2006; 115: 205-222.
  103. Reddy BS, Srinivas T. Energy use in Indian household sector-an actor oriented approach. Energy 2009; 34: 992-1002.
  104. Anil Singh, Gangopadhyay S, Nanda PK, Bhattacharya S, et al. Trends of greenhouse gas emissions from the road transport sector in India. Science of the Total Environment 2008; 390: 124-131.
  105. Jalihal SA, Ravinder K, Reddy TS. Traffic characteristics in India. In: Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies 2005; 5: 1009-1024.
  106. Jalihal SA, Reddy TS. CNG: An alternative fuel for public transport, Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research 2006; 65: 426-431.
  107. Bhattacharya S, Mitra AP. Greenhouse Gas Emissions in India for Year 1990. Centre on Global Change. National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi, India, 1998.
  108. MiEF. India’s Initial National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, New Delhi, 2004: 38-41.
  109. Ramanathan V. Greenhouse effect due to chlorofluorocarbons: Climatic implications. Science 1975; 190: 50-52.
  110. Ramachandra TV, Shwetmala. Emissions from India’s transport sector: State wise synthesis, Atmospheric Environment 2009; 43: 5510-5517
  111. Das Anjana, Jyoti Parikh. Transport scenarios in two metropolitan cities in India: Delhi and Mumbai. Energy Conversion and Management 2004; 45: 2603-2625.
  112. Goyal P, Rama Krishna TV. Various Methods of emission estimation of vehicular traffic in Delhi. Transportation Research Part D 1998; 3: 309-317.
  113. ADB. Energy Efficiency and Climate Change Considerations for on-Road Transport in Asia. Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines, 2006.
  114. Baidya S, Borken Kleefeld J. Atmospheric emissions from road transportation in India. Energy Policy 2009; 37: 3812-3822.
  115. CPCB. Transport Fuel Quality for Year 2005. Central Pollution Control Board, Government of India, New Delhi, 2007.
  116. Mittal ML, Sharma C. Anthropogenic emissions from energy activities in India: generation and source characterization (Part II: emissions from vehicular transport in India). Chemosphere 2003; 49: 1175-1190.
  117. ARAI. Emission Factor Development for Indian Vehicles - As a Part of Ambient Air Quality Monitoring and Emission Source Apportionment Studies. Automotive Research Association of India, Pune, 2007.
  118. Ghose Mrinal K, Paul R, Banerjee SK. Assessment of the impacts of vehicular emissions on urban air quality and its management in Indian context: the case of Kolkata. Environmental Science and Policy 2004;7: 345-351.
  119. Ravindra Khaiwal, Eric Wauters, Sushil K Tyagi, Suman Mor, Rene Van Grieken. Assessment of Air Quality after the implementation of CNG as fuel in public transport in Delhi, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 2006; 115: 405-417. 
  120. Sharma C, Pundir R. Inventory of greenhouse gases and other pollutants from the transport sector: Delhi. Iranian Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering 2008; 5:117-124.
  121. Sharma C, Gupta PK, Parashar DC. Nitrous oxide estimates from paddy fields and forests in India. Indian Journal of Radio and Space Physics 1995;24: 311-313.
  122. William R Moomaw. Industrial emissions of greenhouse gases. Energy Policy 1996;24: 951-968.
  123. Mitra AP. Greenhouse gas emission in India: 1991 Methane campaign. Science Report No. 2, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research and Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi, 1992.
  124. Mitra S, Jain MC, Kumar S, Bandyopadhyay SK, Kalra N. Effect of rice cultivars on methane emission. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 1999; 73(3): 177-183.
  125. Bernstein LJ, Roy KC, Delhotal J, Harnisch R, et al. Industry. In Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer (eds)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2007.
  126. Schumacher K, Jayant Sathaye. India’s Cement Industry: Productivity, Energy Efficiency and Carbon Emissions, Energy Analysis Program, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkely, CA, 1999.
  127. Kumar Surendra. Cleaner Production Technology and bankable energy efficiency drives in fertilizer industry in India to minimize greenhouse gas emissions – Case study, Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies – 6th International Conference 2003: 1031-1036.
  128. Sharma SK, Asim Choudhary, Pinaki Sarkar, Subhashis Biswas et al. Greenhouse gas inventory estimates for India. Current Science 2011; 101: 405-415.
  129. Sharma SK, Sumana Bhattacharya, Amit Garg. Greenhouse gas emissions from India: A perspective. Current Science 2009; 90: 326-333.
  130. Nelson GC, Richard Robertson, Siwa Msangi, Tingju Zhu, Xiaoli Liao, Puja Jawajar. Greenhouse Gas Mitigation: Issues for Indian Agriculture, International Food Policy Research Institute, 2009.
  131. Reddy MS, Boucher O, Venkataraman C. Seasonal carbonaceous aerosol emissions from open biomass burning in India. Bulletin IASTA 2002;14: 239-243.
  132. Alexander M. Introduction to Soil Microbiology, New York and London: John Wiley and Sons, 1961; pp. 227-44.
  133. Sass RL Fisher FM Jr. Methane from irrigated rice cultivation In: Global Environment Chemistry, D.C. Parashar, C. Sharma and A.P. Mitra (Eds.), 1998; 77-94.
  134. Koyama T. Gaseous metabolism in lake sediments and paddy soils and the production of atmospheric methane and hydrogen. Journal of Geophysical Research 1963; 68: 3971-3.
  135. Yanyu Lu, Yao Huang, Jianwen Zou, Xunhua Zheng. An inventory of N2O emissions from agriculture in China using precipitation-rectified emission factor and background emission. Chemosphere 2006; 65: 1915-1924.
  136. Mitra S, Jain MC, Kumar S, Bandyopadhyay SK, Kalra N. Effect of rice cultivars on methane emission. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 1999; 73(3): 177-183.
  137. Parashar DC, Mitra AP, Sinha SK, Gupta PK, et al. Methane budget from Indian paddy fields. In: Minami K, Mosier A, Sass RL (eds) CH4 and N2O: Global Emissions and Controls from Rice Fields and Other Agricultural and Industrial Sources, 1992; 27-39, Tsukuba, Japan: NIAES Series 2.
  138. Parashar DC, Rai J, Gupta PK, Singh N. Parameters affecting methane emission from paddy fields. Indian Journal of Radio and Space Physics 1991; 20: 12-17.
  139. Parashar DC, Prabhat Gupta K, Rai J, Sharma RC, Singh N. Effect of soil temperature on methane emission from paddy fields. Chemosphere 1993; 26: 247-250.
  140. Adhya TK, Rath AK, Gupta PK, Rao VR, Das SN, et al. Methane emission from flooded rice fields under irrigated conditions. Biology and Fertility of Soils 1994; 18: 245-248.
  141. Jain MC, Kumar S, Wassmann R, Mitra S, Singh SD, et al. Methane emissions from irrigated rice fields in Northern India (New Delhi). Nutrient Cycling in Agro ecosystems 2000; 58: 75-83.
  142. Khosa M K, Sidhu BS, Benbi DK. Effect of organic materials and rice cultivars on methane emission from rice field. Journal of Environmental Biology 2010; 31:281-285.
  143. Mitra AP, Bhattacharya S. Climate change and greenhouse gas inventories: projections, impacts and mitigation strategies. In: Shukla, P.R., Sharma, S.K., Ramana, P.V. (Eds.), Climate Change and India: Issues, Concerns and Opportunities. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, 2002.
  144. Chakraborty N, Sarkar GM, Lahiri SC. Methane emission from rice paddy soils, aerotolerance of methanogens and global thermal warming. The Environmentalist 2000; 20: 343-350.
  145. Gupta PK, Vandana Gupta, Sharma C, Das SN, Purkait N,  et al. Development of methane emission factors for Indian paddy fields and estimation of national methane budget, Chemosphere 2009; 74: 590-598.
  146. Gupta Rajat. Oxford Climate Change Action Plan, Oxford City Council Environment Scrutiny Committee, 2005.
  147. MoA. Agricultural Statistics at a Glance (2008). Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation (DAC), Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, 2008.
  148. Ghosh Sabyasachi, Deepanjan Majumdar, Jain MC. Methane and nitrous oxide emissions from an irrigated rice of North India. Chemosphere 2003; 51:181-195.
  149. Majumdar DS, Kumar H, Pathak MC, Jain, Kumar, U. Reducing nitrous oxide emission from rice field with nitrification inhibitors. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 2000; 81:163-169.
  150. Aggarwal PK, Pathak H, Bhatia A, Kumar S. Final report on inventory of nitrous oxide emission from agricultural soils, submitted by Winrock International India on behalf of Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India, 2003
  151. Bhatia, Pathak H, Aggarwal PK. Inventory of methane and nitrous oxide emissions from agricultural soils of India and their global warming potential. Current Science 2008; 87: 317-324
  152. Bandyopadhyay TK, Goyal P, Singh M P. Generation of methane from paddy fields and cattle in India and its reduction at source. Atmospheric Environment 1996; 30: 2569-2574.
  153. Naqvi SMK, Sejian V. Global Climate Change: Role of Livestock. Asian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 2011; 3: 19-25.
  154. Garg A, Shukla PR. Emission Inventory of India. Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi, 2002: pp: 84-89.
  155. Swamy M, Bhattacharya S. Budgeting anthropogenic greenhouse gas emission from Indian livestock using country-specific emission coefficients. Current Science 2006; 91: 1340-1353.
  156. Gaur AC, Neelkantan S, Dargan KS. Organic Manures, second ed. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, 1984.
  157. Yamulki S, Jarvis SC, Owen P. Methane emission and uptake from soils as influenced by excreta deposition from grazing animals. Journal of Env. Quality 1999; 28: 676-682.
  158. Singhal KK, Mohini M, Jha AK, Gupta K. Methane emission estimates from enteric fermentation in Indian livestock: Dry matter intake approach. Current Science2005; 88: 119-127.
  159. Hogne Larsen N, Edgar Hertwich G. Identifying important characteristics of municipal carbon footprints. Ecological Economics 2010; 70: 60-66.
  160. Marlies Kampschreur J., Hardy Temmnik, Robbert Kleerebezem, et al.  Nitrous oxide emission during wastewater treatment. Water Research 2009; 43: 4093-4103.
  161. Talyan V, Dahiya RP, Anand S, Sreekrishnan TR. Quantification of methane emission from municipal solid waste disposal in Delhi. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 2007; 50:240-259.
  162. Kumar Sunil, Gaikwad SA, Shekdar AV, Kshirsagar PS, Singh RN. Estimation method for national methane emission from solid waste landfills. Atmospheric Environment 2004;38: 3481-3487.
  163. Ramachandra TV, Bachamanda S. Environmental audit of Municipal Solid Waste Management. International Journal of Environmental Technology and Management 2007; 7: 369-391.
  164. Rawat Manju, Ramanathan AL. Assessment of Methane flux from municipal solid waste (MSW) landfill areas of Delhi, India. Journal of Environmental Protection 2011;2: 399-407.
  165. Subhasish Chattopadhyay, Amit Gupta, Subhabrata Ray. Municipal solid waste management in Kolkata, India. Waste Management 2009; 29: 1449-1458.
  166. Sunil Kumar, J. K. Bhattacharya, A. N. Vaidya, Tapan Chakrabarti, Sukumar Devotta, A. B. Akolkar. (2009). Assessment of the status of municipal solid waste management in metro cities, state capitals, class I cities and class II towns in India: An insight. Waste management 29(2009) 883-895.
  167. Sunil Kumar, S. A. Gaikwad, A. V. Shekdar, P. S. Kshirsagar, R. N. Singh. (2004). Estimation method for national methane emission from solid waste landfills. Atmospheric Environment 38 (2004) 3481-3487.
  168. Pachauri RK, Sridharan PV. In: Pachauri, R. K., Batra, R. K. (Eds.), Directions, Innovations and Strategies for Harnessing Action for Sustainable Development. TERI, New Delhi, 1998.
  169. Rao JK, Shantaram MV. Soil and water pollution due to open landfills. In: Proceedings of the Sustainable Landfill Management Workshop, 3-5 December 2003 Anna University, Chennai, 2003: pp. 27-38
  170. Kumar Sunil, Bhattacharya JK, Vaidya AN et al. Assessment of the status of municipal solid waste management in metro cities, state capitals, class I cities and class II towns in India: An insight. Waste management 2009; 29:883-895.
  171. Fadel EI M, Massoud M. Methane emissions from wastewater management. Environmental Pollution 2001; 114:177-185.
  172. HRA. House Rent Allowance, Sixth Central Pay Commission, Ministry of Finance, Government of India, 2008.
  173. Balachandran S, Bharat Raj Meena, Khillare PS. Particle size distribution and its elemental composition in the ambient air of Delhi. Environment International 2000; 26: 49-54.
  174. Madhavi Latha K, Krishna Prasad V, Badarinath KVS. Aerosol characteristics and radiative forcing over industrial areas of urban environment – A case study from Hyderabad and its environs. IGU Journal – Indian Geophysical Union 2003;7: 25-29.
  175. Srivastava Anjali, Sukumar Devotta. Indoor Air Quality of Public Places in Mumbai, India in terms of Volatile Organic Compounds. Environmental Monitoring Assessment 2007; 133: 127-138.
  176. Gupta Prabhat K, Arvind Jha K, Koul S, Sharma P, et al. Methane and nitrous oxide emission from bovine manure management practices in India. Environmental Pollution 2007; 146: 219-224.
  177. Bhaskar Vijay, Vikram Mehta M. Atmospheric Particulate Pollutants and their relationship with meteorology in Ahmedabad. Aerosol and Air Quality Research 2010;10: 301-315.
  178. Ramachandra TV, Uttam Kumar. Greater Bangalore: Emerging Urban Heat, Island, GIS Development 2010; 14.
  179. Census of India. Houses, household amenities and assets: India, States and Union Territories - 2001 Census, Office of the Registrar General, Census of India, Government of India, New Delhi, 2001. Available at, www.censusindia.net.
  180. Census of India. Cities having population 1 lakh and above, 2011, Available at http://censusinida.gov.in
  181. Pricewaterhouse Coopers UK Economic Outlook November 2009. Ed John Hawksworth, Thomas Hoehn and Anmol Tiwari. 2009
  182. SOE - State of Environment Report for Delhi. Department of Environment and Forests, Government of Delhi, 2010
  183. MMRDA. Mumbai Urban Infrastructure Project, Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority, 2008.
  184. MoUD. Area, Population and density of cities and towns of India, Area and density – Metropolitan cities, Town and Country Planning Organization, Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, 2009.
  185. Loganathan D, Kamatchiammal S, Ramanibai R, Jayakar Santhosh D, Saroja V, Indumathi S. Status of groundwater at Chennai city, India. Indian Journal of Science and Technology 2011; 4: 566-572.
  186. Ramachandra TV, Bharath H A, Durgappa DS. Insights to Urban Dynamics through Landscape Spatial Pattern Analysis. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 2012; 18:329-343.
  187. Pandey D, Madhoolika Agarwal, Jai Shanker Pandey. Carbon footprint: Current methods of estimation, Environ Monit Assess 2011; 178: 135-160.
  188. Ramachandra TV, Shwetmala. Decentralised Carbon Footprint Analysis for Opting Climate Change Mitigation Strategies in India., Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2012; 16:5820–5833.
  189. Global Footprint Network, Ecological Footprint: Overview, Global Footprint Network, 2007. Available at http://www.footprintnetwork.org/gfn_sub.php?content=footprint_overview.
  190. TEDDY. TERI Energy Data Directory and Yearbook, The Energy and Resource Institute, New Delhi, 2006, 2011.
  191. EEA. EMEP/EEA Air pollutant emission inventory guidebook, European Environment Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2009.
  192. Road Transport Year Book (2007-2009), Transport Research Wing, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Government of India, 2011.
  193. Chelani AB, Sukumar Devotta. Air quality assessment in Delhi: Before and After CNG as Fuel. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 2007; 125: 257-263.
  194. Sandhya Wakdikar, Compressed Natural Gas: A problem or a solution? Current Science 2002; 82: 25-29.
  195. Basic Port Statistics of India, (2009-10), Transport Research Wing, Ministry of Shipping, Government of India, 2011.
  196. Kulkarni Pramod, Chandra Venkataraman. Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Mumbai, India. Atmospheric Environment 2000; 34: 2785-2790.
  197. Ferry JG. Biochemistry of methanogenesis. CRC CRic Rev Biochem Mol Biol 1992; 27: 473-503.
  198. IPCC. Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Editors: JT Houghton, LG Meira Filho, B Lim, K Treanton, I Mamaty, Y Bonduki, 1997.
  199. Schutz H, Holzapfel-Pschorn A, Conrad R, Rennenberg H. Seiler W. A three-year continuous record on the influence of daytime season and fertilizer treatment on methane emission rates from an Italian rice paddy field. Journal of Geophysical Research 1989; 94: 16405-16416.
  200. Seiler W, Holzapfel-Pschorn A, Conrad R. Scharfe D. Methane emission from rice paddies. Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry 1984; 1: 241-268.
  201. Granli T, Bockman OC. Nitrous oxide from agriculture. Norwegian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 1994: 128.
  202. NEERI. Assessment of status of Municipal Solid Waste Management in metro cities, state capitals, class - I cities and class - II towns, 2005.
  203. Nicholas Stern. Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change, UK Treasury, 2006.
  204. Dhamija. Executive summary of Inventorization of greenhouse gases – sources and sinks in Delhi, Climate Change Agenda for Delhi 2009-12, Government of Delhi, 2010.
  205. MoPNG. Statistics on Petroleum and Natural Gas, 2009-10, 2010.
  206. MOA. Livestock Census, 1997 and 2003, 2003.
  207. MOA. 17th Indian Livestock Census, - All India Summary Report. Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairing, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, 2005.
  208. MOA. 18th Indian Livestock Census, - All India Summary Report. Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairing, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, 2007.