Landuse and Urban Planning

SESSION-11: Landuse and Urban Planning
PAPER-3: An Integrated Approach to Manage Water Scarcity in Urban Areas
Saira Varghese K. & Ramachandra T.V.

Water scarcity is one of the major impediments to the development of a society. Many states in India are facing water crises that are having deleterious effects on humans and the ecosystems on which they depend. This has forced states to resort to extreme measures such as water conflicts (for example, the Cauvery water conflict). The main focus of this paper is to address three main issues viz. understanding the scarcity of water, promoting integrated urban water management and the management tools to adopt these strategies. The first issue deals with water scarcity and poverty i.e. water poverty. The second issue will concentrate on the importance of sanitation and the third issue gives emphasis on decision-making tools such as environmental technology assessment and rapid urban assessment. This paper also discusses important methods that are useful to adopt an integrated approach for managing water scarcity.

The world population has crossed the 6 billion mark, out of which one-sixth of them live in India. India achieved this distinction in 1999 and is touted as the second largest populous country in the world. Cities, which are rapidly growing with burgeoning industries, more than 50% of urban populations, do not have proper access to safe drinking water. The scenario will become worse if effective solutions are not provided. Thus the management of varied water uses to conserve the quantity and quality of fresh water is one of the primary objectives of integrated urban water management. The sustainable management of finite water resources relies on integrated decision making that recognises different types of linkages between: land and water uses, socio-economic and environmental practices; and decisions at the international, national, and local levels.

Water supplies in an Indian city ranges between 55 and 243 liters per capita per day, the average ranges from 125 to 145 liters per capita per day. Gross inequity in the distribution of water supply is a critical problem in cities. The affluent are privileged, in terms of water consumption, convenient supply timings, priority in case of shortage etc. At the other end of the spectrum are the slum dwellers who neither have the finances nor the political influence to demand for adequate water supplies. In Kolkota for instance, over 2 million people are without any form of public supply of piped water and another 3 million have an average daily supply of only 60 liters per capita. In slum areas of most Indian cities, the water supply is from public pumps and the per capita consumption is only 20-25 liters per day.

Historically, urban cities like Bangalore, Kolkota, Mumbai etc have relied on their closest source of water, which in most cases were freshwater streams, lakes or springs. But these sources are not always reliable as droughts and pollution can cause water shortages or scarcity. This even culminates into water conflicts such as the Cauvery water conflict, which has made headlines all over India. Continually expanding cities like Bangalore are already suffering water crises and have resorted to unmitigated extraction of groundwater.

In addition, waterlines bringing water into the city are old and pipes are broken or leaking. Distribution pipes also leak (although it is difficult to calculate how much is leakage and how much is illegal consumption). These losses, combined with increased consumption (partly due to poorly controlled patterns and partly due to demographic growth) and insufficient input, frequently cause pressure in the pipes to fall, often forcing interruption of the service. When service is interrupted, pressure in the pipes may become negative and contaminated water is drawn from the soil surrounding the lines, introducing another source of contamination into the system.

Causes of water supply problems in urban areas

During the last few decades, providing water to cities in India has become more and more difficult. Reasons for the problems are numerous and some are listed below:

Complexity of water management in urban areas

Urbanisation strongly affects water management. First, a considerable portion of the ground is covered with relatively impermeable layers of various paving materials; infiltration and evaporation are almost nil and most precipitation runs off. Second, some of the land is excavated, removed or buried under fill materials brought from somewhere else, producing significant hydrological changes. Third many types of structures are inserted into or laid on top of the ground surface with important effects on water dynamics. These structures can sometimes obstruct surface or groundwater flow.

Cities also ‘import' water to satisfy the needs of their populations. Water is drawn from nearby streams, lakes or wells; treated, stored and conducted to the residents; used for various purposes; and disposed off as waste waters. The disposal is carried out by means of another water conduction system. In some cases, water is returned to the ‘natural' hydrological system, treated or untreated, in a much different state than it was originally extracted.

These processes imply dramatic changes to the environment in the urban region. Rivers are channelled or piped, their flow volumes and regimes are substantially modified and their waters are artificially produced and ‘relocated' natural substances. Groundwater levels and, therefore, groundwater flow are also changed; they are usually lowered and in some cases, raised. Changes to the natural water system may occur at the site of extraction (e.g. reduction in river volume or drawdown of water level through wells); during conduction and storage (e.g. leakage from water pipes, tanks, canals and sewers); or at the disposal end of the system (discharge of sewage).

Water availability is one of the indicators of urban development. When people have access to abundant water they can spend their financial resources on other necessities. However not all have access to such basic services such as water in large cities. City slums are often located in marginal areas, where installation of water systems presents engineering problems. But the problem may not always be due to the lack of infrastructure. It is observed that large cities consume relatively large volumes of water. Again there is a distinction where the rich have better access to water than the poor. Whether water scarcity is due to poor service or loss of pressure in the conveyance system, the first to suffer the effects are the urban poor.

Water scarcity

Water scarcity by definition implies diminishing resources and/or a pressure on the supply of available water from an increasing demand. As a rule of thumb, hydrologists use the level of 1,000-2,000 cubic meters per person per year to designate danger of water-stress. When the figures drop below 1,000 cubic meters per year, then the nation is considered water scarce, which means that lack of water becomes a severe constraint on food production, economic development, and protections of natural systems. Today, 26 countries with 232 million people belong to this group.

• Disinclination to treat water as an economic as well as a public goods resulting in inefficient water use practices by households, industries and agriculture. Very often city households pay subsidised tariff for their water use.

• Excessive reliance in many places on inefficient institutions for water and wastewater services. There is no incentive to improve their efficiency and reliability under the present organizations.

• Fragmented management of water between sectors and institutions, with little regard for conflicts between social, economic and environmental objectives;

• Inadequate recognition of the health and environmental concerns associated with current practices. Lack of trained engineers, data on water quality, and information dissemination systems further aggravates this problem. International agencies still do not have comprehensive understanding of water quality issues in developing countries as most of the experts are trained in developed, often temperate, countries.

• Environmental degradation of water sources, in particular, reduced water quality and quantity due to pollution from urban or land-based activities. Little money and attention is paid to improve basic infrastructure such as water and wastewater systems, while more money is spent for economic growth. Lack of consensus on "who should pay for water and wastewater" very often makes it difficult to build sustainable water and wastewater systems.

• Inadequate use of alternative water sources. Alternative water sources other than groundwater and surface water are rarely explored. Desalination is too expensive; and rainwater harvesting is only good for small communities in remote areas. Wastewater reuse may be a future alternative but it requires a better understanding on the risks and benefits of water reuse.

Poverty

The first element of the nature of poverty, which needs to be understood, is that poverty affects all aspects of society. An understanding of the pervasive nature of poverty is important when assessing its impact on any particular individual sector. Poverty can be classified into two viz. institutional and individual. Institutional poverty is characterised by lack of sufficient funds, poor salaries, inadequate experience of officials etc and individual poverty is characterised by lack of formal employment, un-affordability to access basic services, disease, poor health etc. All of these factors contribute towards the "poverty cycle" where each element is both a cause and an effect. For example, the lack of adequate education is an indicator of poverty and a cause of poverty. The same is the case for water supply and sanitation. Thus the vast populations, which find themselves trapped within the cycle of poverty, are unable to escape.

One of the primary constraints in poverty affected areas is the proportion of disposable income which is available to be spent on basic services. Disposable income is the cash available in the household for expenditure on food, clothing, medicines, schooling, fuel, water, other basic amenities etc. Survival strategies require families that function below the poverty line to give importance to every paisa that is spent. Alternatives such as alternative sources of water, even if they are at long distances, or purchasing water from vendors, are chosen over monthly rates. Issues such as affordability and willingness to pay are thus directly related to disposable income.

In most moderately well-off households the cost of water supply is usually an insignificant proportion of the household budget, but in poor households the proportion is much higher. But there comes a point where the proportion is too high and the services is considered too expensive. Higher levels of services consequently require proportionately higher levels of disposable income.

In order to break the poverty cycle effective measures are necessary at all levels from national government to the individual. W e must adopt a new approach to water resources management in the new millennium so as to overcome these failures, reduce poverty and conserve the environment -- all within the framework of sustainable development.

Over the past two decades and more, it has been increasingly recognised that although some improvements in water supply have been taking place in Indian cities, much less attention has been paid to sanitation. In fact, adequate sanitation coverage is probably decreasing and the rapidly growing urban areas suffer most from lack of sanitation and its serious effects. The municipalities find it a formidable task to supply water and sanitation to all people. The non-slum areas are almost well replenished but the worst to suffer are the slum pockets. It is estimated that 40 % of India's urban population live in slums. For example, Bangalore, which is one of the world's fastest growing city, has an even larger percentage of slum dwellers. About half of the city's population of six million live in slums. Moreover where water-borne sewerage systems are available in poor cities, sewage is often untreated or inadequately treated, and sewers poorly maintained. Unhygienic conditions predominate in slum areas where the city's water supply and sewer system lay side by side. An integrated urban water management plan, for example, can empower communities to decide on the level of access to safe water and hygienic living conditions.

A strategic approach towards sanitation is therefore necessary for improved coverage of infrastructure and services in both non-slum and slum areas. They are as follows:

Equity for the neediest

The 27% of the urban population living in slums make a vital contribution to urban productivity but do not enjoy access to basic urban services. This is deepened by a disproportionate growth in the slum population. In many cities (for example Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh) almost the entire population growth in the last decade is accounted for in the slums. Slum networking can give high priority to this group, which is also suffering the greatest deprivations.

The ultimate aim should be to absorb these settlements into the city so that there is equity between the income groups in terms of life enjoyed and the distribution of benefits.

Financing

Financing is a major issue for sustainable sanitation schemes whether they are local community based initiatives or large scale programmes funded by international donor organisations. Development for the urban poor is normally financed with public funds, normally in the form of grants. The limited public revenues are rarely enough to match the overwhelming needs. Since 80% of the population are not eligible for direct taxation, it is from the 20% the resources are raised. Also the basic needs of the urban poor are met through subsidised public distributions. But once the upper income group becomes beneficiaries of slum upgradation, the resource base expands and the willingness to cross subsidise increases. Individual services such as payment for services can bring in significant contribution from across the population. As the higher income group also gain from the improved city level services, they too are less reluctant to contribute through connection and betterment taxes.

Concentration of resources

Where resources are scarce, it is prudent to give priority to the worst distresses. Slums naturally qualify for the bias. Further the 27% of the urban population living in slums occupy only about 5% of the residential areas of the cities. Thus, by exploiting the slum fabric, massive impact can be made on the city by just working on one-twentieth of the land mass. Focusing resources in this way is highly cost effective.

Awareness of hygiene and health

Faecal-oral contact, flies and mosquitoes account for most of the illnesses in our cities. Slums become the centres of epidemics because of contaminated water supplies, open sewers and waterlogging. Therefore awareness of the importance of good health and hygiene should be instilled in the people demanding better sanitation. Community participation is proposed to offer many benefits relating to increased demand for sanitation, improvements in the cost-recovery and responsibility for operations and maintenance.

Public acceptability

This is perhaps one of the major hurdles to overcome when adopting a sustainable approach to sanitation. . Public acceptance takes a long time even if a particular sanitation scheme is feasible. It is stated that many low-income groups do not bother to express their demand for many basic services because past experience makes them skeptical of the ability and/or willingness of municipal institutions to respond. There are more than nineteen types of human excreta disposal system and only three are found to be suitable for adoption in India. These, in descending order of quality performance and acceptability are (i) the high cost local government managed sewerage system (ii) the medium cost household managed septic tank system and (iii) the low cost individual household and water friendly and multi-beneficiary pour flush water seal sanitary compost latrine or household toilets such as Sulabh Shauchalya.

A key aspect of the strategic sanitation approach is the necessity for the institutions that are responsible for planning and implementation of sanitation programmes to think and act strategically. Municipalities should explore new areas where a particular approach is both economically feasible and environmental friendly. It should make an effort to adopt a low cost approach employing technical and scientific know-how and experience already gained by several non-governmental organisations in this regard. For example, NGOs such as Sulabh, whose 2-pit pour flush latrine also called as sulabh shauchalya is in operation in a large number of states in India.

The commitment of various stakeholders is important. NGOs are more easily motivated and are committed to making improvements, the governmental officials are frequently less motivated and committed. Thus it is very important to have one responsible organisation in a municipality with overall responsibility for sanitation planning. Also sanitation provision should be decentralised and the power should be shared by different levels from the national to local level.

Some of the tools that we suggest for decision making in integrated urban water management are rapid urban environmental assessment, geographical information system and environmental technology assessment.

Rapid Urban Environmental Assessment (RUEA)

Rapid urban environmental assessment is a strategic approach to urban environmental planning and management by helping to clarify issues, involve key actors, identify priorities and build political commitment where some or all of these elements are lacking. It is a 3 step process that involves completion of a questionnaire, preparation of an urban environmental profile using the questionnaire and discussion of the results. The questionnaire will include data that are to be collected in the following categories such as baseline health conditions, baseline social and economic status, water resources, water supply and sewerage/sanitation, urban transport etc. The urban environmental profile will cover 4 areas (a) general background information (historical, socioeconomic and geophysical perspective on urban development); (b) the status of the environment in the urban region (air, water, land and cultural property); (c) interactions between development and environment (effect of developmental activity on the urban environment); and (d) the institutional setting for environmental management (key public and private actors affecting the city, existing management functions etc). The subsequent steps in the strategic approach are

RUAE is best used by local governments (of urban or urbanising localities) as it provides a comprehensive diagnostic approach to determine problems and solutions for a wide range of environmental problems.

GIS applications in hydrogeology

Groundwater resources are dynamic in nature and are utilised accordingly with the expansion of irrigation activities, industrialisation, urbanisation etc. As it is the largest available source of fresh water lying beneath the ground it has become crucial not only for targeting groundwater potential zones, but also monitoring and conserving this important resource.

GIS is a tool for storing, manipulating, retrieving and presenting both spatial and non-spatial data in a quick, efficient and organised way. Since most land information elements have a geographic connotation, geographically referenced data with GIS techniques come to the fore in such applications. Satellite data provides quick and useful baseline information on the parameters controlling the occurrence and movement of groundwater like geology, lithology/structural, geomorphology, soils, landuse/cover, lineaments etc. Hence a systematic study of these factors leads to better delineation of prospective zones in an area, which is then followed up on the ground through detailed hydrogeological and geophysical investigations. Visual interpretation has been the main tool for evaluation of groundwater prospective zones for over two decades. It has also been found that remote sensing provides input towards estimation of the total groundwater resources in an area, the selection of appropriate sites for artificial recharge and the depth of the weathering area. By combining the remote sensing information with adequate field data, particularly well inventory and yield data, it is possible to arrive at models to predict the ranges of depth, yield, success rate and the types of wells suited to various terrain under different hydrogeological domains. Based on the status of groundwater development and groundwater-irrigated areas (though remote sensing), artificial recharge structures such as percolation tanks, check dams and subsurface dykes can be recommended upstream of groundwater irrigated areas to recharge the wells in the downstream areas so as to augment groundwater resources.

Environmental Technology Assessment (EnTA)

Decisions on technology adoption, implementation and use at local authority levels are often not one-shot events. Instead, they are characterised by a multiple sequence of decisions made across a tiered hierarchy. Environmental technology assessment is explored as an analytical tool, designed to ensure that decision-making processes related to technology adoption, implementation and use are sustainable.

The informal, voluntary nature of EnTA is most appropriate at the politico-strategic decision-making levels within the urban management context. EnTA, as a strategic decision-making philosophy that enhances sustainability, rather than a prescribed process, is aimed at both politicians and administrators, that are providing strategic or policy level guidance. Environmental technology assessment consists of the following stages:

Some benefits include improved environmental and economic sustainability, increased net social benefit, equity and empowerment and improved financial sustainability.

Quite clearly, a concerted strategy for management of water resources in urban areas need to be put in place in order to avoid the crisis of water and sanitation. Some of the practices that can be adopted for an urban setting are as follows:

Waste prevention and control

There is a need to account for the water received in cities and distributed, to arrive at the quantity of water not accounted. For major Indian cities, the unaccounted water should not be more than 15%. If it is more, it calls for immediate investigation. Where the percentage is less, the system can be considered as efficient. The wastage is mainly due to the following factors.

Since all consumer connections in Bangalore are metered, the wastage is accounted through the meters. Yet this wastage needs prevention, so that the water is available for use. Whenever meter records more than 50% of normal consumption, such connections, should be immediately inspected and the cause for high consumption investigated. The leakages may be in the piping ,which may not break surface, through leaky taps, flushing cisterns, in underground sumps etc. These may be repaired to prevent wastage.

Pipes of size 2” to 36” are usually used in city distribution system. Many pipelines are more than 80 to 90 years old. These develop leakage in the joints due to corrosion or bursting. Small leakages may not be noticed at all since they do not break surface. Major leakages, which are seen physically, are attended but hidden leakages go unnoticed. In view of this, cities like Bangalore have adopted the practice of conducting surveys to identify the hidden leakages. It is also programmed to replace all old and corroded pipes by new pipes and to provide protection wherever they are subjected to heavy vehicular traffic.

Pipes are subjected to rough use and there is always delay in repairing them. Use of quality materials for the piping and fittings should be insisted. Periodic inspection and quick repairs have to be undertaken.

The consumption through these connections taken without approval is not leakage. But this consumption is not accounted and does not generate any revenue. Periodic survey and action taken to remove or regularise the same should identify such connections.

Wastewater reclamation and reuse

Inadequate water supplies and water quality deterioration represent serious contemporary concerns for many municipalities, industries, agriculture, and the environment in various parts of the world. Several factors have contributed to these problems such as continued population growth in urban areas, contamination of surface water and groundwater, uneven distribution of water resources, and frequent droughts caused by extreme global weather patterns. Water reclamation and reuse provides a unique and viable opportunity to augment traditional water supplies.

In the planning and implementation of water reuse, the intended water reuse applications govern the degree of wastewater treatment required and the reliability of wastewater treatment processing and operation. In principle, wastewater or any marginal quality waters can be used for any purpose as long as adequate treatment is provided to meet the water quality requirements for the intended use. The dominant applications for the use of reclaimed water for urban areas are:

Rainwater harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is the collection of rainwater. In most cases, a roof is used for this purpose. The rainwater then flows through the gutters, into a collection tank. The size of the tank is dependent on the amount and purpose of the water but also on the annual rainfall and the size of the roof. A normal sized tank for a roof of 20 to 40 square metres is 10 cubic metres. The collected water can be used for small scale irrigation (of vegetable gardens etc.), clothes washing, bathing and after appropriate treatment also for drinking and food preparation.

Rainwater offers advantages in water quality for both irrigation and domestic use. Rainwater is

naturally soft (unlike well water), contains almost no dissolved minerals or salts, is free of chemical treatment, and is a relatively reliable source of water for households. Rainwater collected and used on site can supplement or replace other sources of household water.

The advantages of rainwater harvesting

Rainwater harvesting methods for urban areas

Augmenting groundwater

Ground water is a very valuable economic commodity. The conservation of this precious ground water is very important because it moves through soil and many years may be required to replace hastily pumped out water. During heavy rain, storm runoff is generated. In the urban areas, this causes large scale flooding and disruption of life. But, after the rainy season, there is the usual scarcity of water, the situation progressively becoming grim until the next rainy season when the story is repeated. Among several reasons for the depletion of the ground water table, indiscriminate paving activity, for which the general public, besides the Corporation, is identified as the most important one. This has prevented rainwater from seeping into the soil, particularly in suburbs located close to the sea where the soil is sandy in nature and is said to have high permeability. Cities like Bangalore has already resorted to indiscriminate and illegal extraction of groundwater. Sometimes borewells upto 400 feet have been dug for groundwater.

The increasing demand for water has increased awareness towards the use of artificial recharge to augment ground water supplies. Stated simply, artificial recharge is a process by which excess surface water is directed into the ground – either by spreading on the surface, by using recharge wells, or by altering natural conditions to increase infiltration – to replenish an aquifer. It refers to the movement of water through man-made systems from the surface of the earth to underground water-bearing strata where it may be stored for future use. Artificial recharge (sometimes called planned recharge) is a way to store water underground in times of water surplus to meet demand in times of shortage (NRC, 1994)

This method involves surface spreading of water in basins that are excavated in the existing terrain. For effective artificial recharge highly permeable soils are suitable and maintenance of a layer of water over the highly permeable soils is necessary. When direct discharge is practiced the amount of water entering the aquifer depends on three factors - the infiltration rate, the percolation rate, and the capacity for horizontal water movement. In a homogenous aquifer the infiltration rate is equal to the percolation rate. At surface of the aquifer however, clogging occurs by deposition of particles carried by water in suspension or in solution, by algal growth, colloidal swelling and soil dispersion, microbial activity etc. Recharge by spreading basins is most effective where there are no impending layers between the land surface and the aquifer and where clear water is available for recharge; however, more turbid water can be tolerated than with well recharge.

The construction of recharge well and recharge shaft is more suitable for urban areas and preferred for rooftop harvesting of rainwater. Recharge or injection wells are used to directly recharge water into deep water-bearing zones. Recharge wells could be cased through the material overlying the aquifer and if the earth materials are unconsolidated, a screen can be placed in the well in the zone of injection. In some cases, several recharge wells may be installed in the same bore hole. Recharge wells are suitable only in areas where a thick impervious layer exists between the surface of the soil and the aquifer to be replenished. A recharge well is suitable where availability of land is limited and aquifer to be recharged is deep and overlain by clay, which is impermeable. Rooftop rainwater is channelised to the well. To make the rainwater silt-free before recharging, a water chamber is constructed by the side of the recharge well. The water chamber can also be used for pumping out non-drinkable water for use in gardens etc. The depth of recharge well can be 20-50 metres

The technique of recharge shaft is applied in shallow aquifer conditions where the water-bearing strata is overlain by impermeable clay surface. In this method a recharge shaft is dug or drilled with a diameter of 0.5 to 2.5 m. This shaft is packed with coarse sand, gravels and pebbles. The rooftop water is directed into the shaft through drains. The depth of the shaft varies from 10 to 15 metres below ground level. For the safety of the building, the shaft should be constructed 15 to 20 metres away. It should be cleaned regularly by periodic refilling.

Another source of artificial groundwater recharge is effluents from septic tanks, using soakaways. The soakaways used for this purpose are very similar to suckwells in design and construction, except that they are used in conjunction with septic tanks and are always covered.

Integrated water resources management is a process, which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources in order to maximise the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems (GWP Technical Advisory Committee, 2000).

IUWRM is an emerging concept that covers the entire urban water cycle, including rainwater, desalination, ground and surface water, etc., as well as storage and distribution, treatment, recycling and disposal, and the protection, conservation and exploitation of water resources at their origin. It also empowers local communities to decide on the level of access to safe water and hygienic living conditions, the need to produce more food, and the need to create more sustainable livelihoods per unit of water, and the need to manage human water use to conserve the quantity and quality of freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems that provide services to humans and all living things.

IUWRM thus involves the coordinated management of the water resource and the drinking water treatment plant. Careful resource management reduces the need for treatment processes. The system of collecting wastewater, transporting it to the treatment plant and the effluent discharge to receiving water is managed as a whole. Outfall sewers can be designed to act as bioreactors, treating wastewater en route to the plant. Storage for rainwater and storm water is provided in the system to reduce the impact of polluting storm water discharges to the environment. Alternatives to pipe based storm water systems are introduced. Infiltration where the rain hits the ground is becoming more common. Porous pavements, rainwater absorption in private gardens, shallow drainage ditches alongside highways, landscaped rainfall storage ponds and lakes in housing developments, are all part of this. Using modern electronic monitoring and control systems, including radar tracking of weather patterns, it is becoming possible to manage the entire system of urban water use, as a whole, in real time. As water reuse becomes more widespread this will be factored into the control system. The ultimate aim of the concept, is optimisation of water and energy use, minimisation of cost and negative impact on the environment.

Danilo J. Danton.1993. Thirsty Cities, International Development and Research Centre, Ottawa

Singh B.N., Maitra S and Sharma R. 1996. Urban Environmental Management , The Indian Experience, Working Papers, New Delhi

Rajanna S and. Rajanna. B.N. 1997. Workshop on Integrated Urban Water Management , Karnataka Environment Reserach Foundation, Bangalore

Technical Education Series.2000. Technical Workbook on Environmental Management Tools for Decision Analysis , UNEP International Environmental Technology Centre, Osaka/Shiga

Energy and Wetlands Research Group,
Centre for Ecological Sciences,
Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore – 560012. Karnataka. India
E-mail: cestvr@ces.iisc.ernet.in
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