The natural world or the habitat in which an organism exists, and functions is known as the Environment. It consists of all the biotic and abiotic components in the surroundings. Activities of the biotic components, ranging from micro to macro scale, have an effect on the ecosystem. There is a delicate equilibrium among the biotic and abiotic components. The delicate equilibrium is being disturbed, due to unplanned anthropogenic activities, which have resulted in the catastrophic consequences evident from frequent floods and droughts. Escalated anthropogenic activities subsequent to the industrialization era have impacted the environment more severely than at any other time in the human history. Increased global temperature, extreme weather conditions, melting of icecaps, rising sea levels, extreme droughts and floods, water scarcity, high levels of pollution, poverty, hunger, extreme temperatures, deforestation, widespread diseases/infections, declining life quality are just few of the consequences. Therefore, it has become extremely important to assess the condition of the ecosystem in order to facilitate proper measures to enhance the quality of environment and prevent it from further deterioration. There has been a tremendous improvement in environmental assessment methods. Technology has advanced significantly which facilitates easy access and interpretation of data required in environmental research. Real-time data as well as historical data is available for various environmental parameters like Climate Indicators, Marine data, Atmospheric Chemistry Atmospheric Phenomena, Land-Surface data, Cryosphere data, Biosphere data, Terrestrial data, etc. There are numerous data sets available from a variety of sources, including experimentally acquired data to data obtained from satellite-based remote sensing. NASA's Giovanni, NASA's Earthdata search, and EU's Copernicus Climate Data Store are few of the web service providers. Numerous software applications are available that enable quick and accurate processing of huge volumes of data, allowing the researcher to obtain accurate results to base their decisions. MATLAB, QGIS, ARCGIS, Whitebox GAT, uDig, gVSIG, GeoDa, FalconView and MapWindow etc. are few of the software applications available for facilitating easy data processing. There are several indices which try to assess environmental performance and sustainability on various scales ranging from city level to country level. Air quality Index, Ecological Footprint, Material Footprint, Environmental Performance Indicator (EPI) are few examples of environmental indices.

1.1 Sustainable Development

Development must be ensured in environmental, social and economic sectors in order to have a sustainable future.Environment, Society and Economy are the 3 pillars of sustainability. Progress in all three sectors is necessary in order to ensure overall development and high quality of life. In the last 2 decades there has been substantial efforts by all countries and global institutions to preserve the environment and enhance social and economic life of all people. In order to ensure a better and more sustainable future for all, 17 interlinked global goals and 169 targets have been designed by UNGC in 2015, known as Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which are expected to be accomplished by 2030. The mission statement of SDGs is "A blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all people and the world by 2030". The 17 SDGs are:

Goal	Theme	Goal	Theme
1	No Poverty	10	Reduced Inequality
2	Zero Hunger	11	Sustainable Cities and Communities
3	Good Health and Well-being	12	Responsible Consumption Production
4	Quality Education	13	Climate Action
5	Gender Equality	14	Life Below Water
6	Clean Water and Sanitation	15	Life on Land
7	Affordable and Clean Energy	16	Peace and Justice Strong Institutions
8	Decent Work and Economic Growth	17	Partnerships to achieve the Goal
9	Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure

All countries, especially developing countries like India are striving to achieve a balance between socio-economic development and well-being without overusing existing biophysical resources. As such there are certain thresholds defined for biophysical factors within which humanity can survive, develop and thrive for generations to come. These thresholds/boundaries are known as Planetary Boundaries. Currently there are nine planetary boundaries defined and they are:

Climate change	Biodiversity loss	Biogeochemical flows
Ocean acidification	Land use	Freshwater use
Ozone depletion	Atmospheric aerosol loading (Particle pollution)	Chemical Pollution

DOUGHNUT ECONOMICS

Integration of the concept of Planetary Boundaries and social boundaries for overall sustainable development leads to the concept of Doughnut economics.

Numerous studies are being conducted to assess the environment. The Bertelsmann Stiftung Foundation publishes the Sustainable Development Report [1] annually, which includes the SDG Index, which evaluates each country's progress towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. Yale university publishes the EPI [2] (Environmental Performance Index) annually, which at a national scale determines and measures the level of achievement of the established environmental targets. The EPI ranks 180 nations on climate change performance, environmental health, and ecosystem vitality using 40 performance indicators across 11 issue categories. The Government of India's NITI (NATIONAL INSTITUTION FOR TRANSFORMING INDIA) AAYOG publishes the SDG India Index[4] annually which measures and ranks the progress made by states and union territories on various economic, environmental, and social parameters. These assessments can be used to compare environmental conditions, sustenance and development of various regions. These assessments also help to infer the current conditions of individual regions and help in framing policies which will help in improving sectors which are lacking and underdeveloped and ensure overall development. The current study evaluates and ranks the taluks of Karnataka in order of their development and sustenance. 

1.2 Need of taluk wise environment indices in Karnataka

There are several studies attempted to assess the environmental status. However, all these studies assess the environment on a larger scale, usually global and country-level like the EPI, SDG Index, Safe and Just Operating Space for India [5](Roy et al.) etc.

The environmental assessment is primarily done by measuring the present conditions of the region against the safe, sustainable conditions (or goals) set for the region. As the scale decreases it becomes difficult to assess the environment as the goals and conditions vary very distinctively from region to region. Indices like EPI and Sustainable Development Index needs to be assessed at decentralized levels considering smaller city/town scales for decentralized good governance[6].

The main objectives of the study is to

1. provide a data-driven assessment of sustenance of natural resources for the taluks of Karnataka
2. evaluate and rank the taluks of Karnataka in order of their development and sustenance
3. provide separate environmental, social and economic scores
4. provide an analytical assessment of sustenance/performance which can be helpful in framing policies to ensure overall inclusive development.

The main objective of computing EPI or environmental performance indices at taluk levels through integrated spatial approach considering environmental (17 parameters - Temperature, Normal Rainfall (2021), Forest Cover (2011), Forest Ecosystem Services, agriculture (Croplands and Horticulture), Ecosystem Services, Wetland Ecosystem Services, Percentage Uncultivable Land (2011), Stage of Ground Water Extraction, Amount of Carbon dioxide (CO₂) in Atmosphere, Amount of Carbon monoxide (CO) in Atmosphere, Amount of Methane (CH₄) in Atmosphere, Amount of Ozone (O₃) in Atmosphere, Amount of Formaldehyde (HCHO) in Atmosphere, Amount of Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) in Atmosphere, Amount of Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) in Atmosphere, Amount of Black Carbon (BC) in Atmosphere, Amount of PM2.5 in Atmosphere), social (14 parameters - Population Density (Projected 2022), Sex Ratio, Literacy Rate (2011), Total Workers Population (2011), Number of Hospitals per sq.km, Number of Medical Shops per sq.km, Percentage of Irrigated Land (2011), Pupil-Teacher Ratio (Schools), Student-Lecturer Ratio (PU Colleges), Number of Professional Degree Colleges per sq.km, Percentage of Households with Electricity, Percentage of Households with LPG/PNG connections, Number of Veterinary Hospitals per sq.km, Number of Internet Connections per sq.km) and economic (10 parameters: Per Capita Income, Number of Factories per sq.km, Number of employees in Factories per sq.km, Number of Small-scale Unit Registered District Industrial Centres per sq.km, Number of people working in Small-scale Unit Registered District Industrial Centres per sq.km, Number of Banks per sq.km, Number of Post Offices per sq.km, Length of Urban Roads per sq.km, Length of Rural Roads per sq.km, Number of Vehicles per sq.km) parameters to understand the current environmental status with respect to carrying capacity of a taluk considering safe environmental boundaries (i.e., biophysical ceiling) and proportion of the population meeting social aspects . The outcome of the current study aids in decision making through understanding of the present status of environmental performance and region’s ability to meet Sustainable Development Goals.

2.1 Study Area: Karnataka State, India

2.2 Data, Sustainability Indicators and Spatial analysis

Environment, Society and Economy are the three pillars of sustainability. Overall progressive and inclusive development is achieved only when there is development in all three sectors. EPI is computed considering, 41 indicators (17 Environmental, 14 Social, 10 Economic) have been included and evaluated at the taluk level.

Acquiring Data

• Data from https://karnataka.data.gov.in/   is acquired in .csv format.
• Data from 1) District at a glance (DAG’s) pdf’s, 2) Valuation of Ecosystem Services, Karnataka State, India Report of the NCAVES Project (Ramachandra et al. 2021) and 3) Karnataka Groundwater Resource Assessment Report as on March-2020 is manually entered into excel sheet.
• Required geospatial satellite data is derived from https://giovanni.gsfc.nasa.gov/giovanni/  and the selection of data and download procedure are provided in the Annexure 1.

Table 2.5 lists parameters considered for computing EPI.

Table 2.5. Environmental, social and economic parameters chosen for EPI assessment

Environmental Parameters	Social Parameters	Economic Parameters
Temperature	Population Density (Projected 2022)	Per Capita Income
Normal Rainfall (2021)	Sex Ratio	Number of Factories per sq.km
Forest Cover (2011)	Literacy Rate (2011)	Number of employees in Factories per sq.km
Forest Ecosystem Services	Total Workers Population (2011)	Number of Small-scale Unit Registered District Industrial Centres per sq.km
Croplands and Horticulture Ecosystem Services	Number of Hospitals per sq.km	Number of people working in Small-scale Unit Registered District Industrial Centres per sq.km
Wetland Ecosystem Services	Number of Medical Shops per sq.km	Number of Banks per sq.km
Percentage Uncultivable Land (2011)	Percentage of Irrigated Land (2011)	Number of Post Offices per sq.km
Stage of Ground Water Extraction	Pupil-Teacher Ratio (Schools)	Length of Urban Roads per sq.km
Amount of Carbon dioxide (CO2) in Atmosphere	Student-Lecturer Ratio (PU Colleges)	Length of Rural Roads per sq.km
Amount of Carbon monoxide (CO) in Atmosphere	Number of Professional Degree Colleges per sq.km	Number of Vehicles per sq.km
Amount of Methane (CH4) in Atmosphere	Percentage of Households with Electricity
Amount of Ozone (O3) in Atmosphere	Percentage of Households with LPG/PNG connections
Amount of Formaldehyde (HCHO) in Atmosphere	Number of Veterinary Hospitals per sq.km
Amount of Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in Atmosphere	Number of Internet Connections per sq.km
Amount of Sulphur dioxide (SO2) in Atmosphere
Amount of Black Carbon (BC) in Atmosphere
Amount of PM2.5 in Atmosphere

Data source

Environmental, social and economic parameters  along with datya source are listed in Tables 2.6 to 2.8.

Tabe 2.6. Environmental Parameters

Environmental Parameter	Source	Environmental Parameter	Source
Temperature-2-meter Air Temperature	https://giovanni.gsfc.nasa.gov/giovanni/ MERRA-2 instM_2d_asm_Nx: 2d,Monthly mean,Single-Level,Assimilation,Single-Level Diagnostics V5.12.4 (M2IMNXASM) Global Modeling and Assimilation Office (GMAO) (2015), MERRA-2 tavgM_2d_slv_Nx: 2d,Monthly mean,Time-Averaged,Single-Level,Assimilation,Single-Level Diagnostics V5.12.4, Greenbelt, MD, USA, Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center (GES DISC), Accessed: [Data Accessed during-July 2022], 10.5067/AP1B0BA5PD2K	Amount of Carbon dioxide (CO2) in Atmosphere	https://giovanni.gsfc.nasa.gov/giovanni/ OCO-2 GEOS Level 3 daily, 0.5x0.625 assimilated CO2 V10r (OCO2_GEOS_L3CO2_DAY) Brad Weir, Lesley Ott and OCO-2 Science Team (2022), OCO-2 GEOS Level 3 daily, 0.5x0.625 assimilated CO2 V10r, Greenbelt, MD, USA, Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center (GES DISC), Accessed: [Data Accessed during-July 2022], 10.5067/Y9M4NM9MPCGH
Normal Rainfall (2021)	https://karnataka.data.gov.in/	Amount of Methane (CH4) in Atmosphere	https://giovanni.gsfc.nasa.gov/giovanni/ AIRS/Aqua L3 Monthly Standard Physical Retrieval (AIRS-only) 1 degree x 1 degree V006 (AIRS3STM) AIRS Science Team/Joao Teixeira (2013), AIRS/Aqua L3 Monthly Standard Physical Retrieval (AIRS-only) 1 degree x 1 degree V006, Greenbelt, MD, USA, Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center (GES DISC), Accessed: [Data Accessed during-July 2022], 10.5067/Aqua/AIRS/DATA321
Forest Cover (2011)	https://karnataka.data.gov.in/	Amount of Ozone (O3) in Atmosphere	https://giovanni.gsfc.nasa.gov/giovanni/ OMI/Aura Ozone (O3) DOAS Total Column L3 1 day 0.25 degree x 0.25 degree V3 (OMDOAO3e) Pepijn Veefkind (2012), OMI/Aura Ozone (O3) DOAS Total Column L3 1 day 0.25 degree x 0.25 degree V3, Greenbelt, MD, USA, Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center (GES DISC), Accessed: [Data Accessed during-July 2022], 10.5067/Aura/OMI/DATA3005
Forest Ecosystem Services	Valuation of Ecosystem Services, Karnataka State, India Report of the NCAVES Project [10] (et al. Ramachandra T.V)	Amount of Formaldehyde (HCHO) in Atmosphere	https://giovanni.gsfc.nasa.gov/giovanni/ OMI/Aura Formaldehyde (HCHO) Total Column Daily L3 Weighted Mean Global 0.1deg Lat/Lon Grid V003 (OMHCHOd) Kelly Chance (2019), OMI/Aura Formaldehyde (HCHO) Total Column Daily L3 Weighted Mean Global 0.1deg Lat/Lon Grid V003, Greenbelt, MD, USA, Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center (GES DISC), Accessed: [Data Accessed during-July 2022], 10.5067/Aura/OMI/DATA3010
Croplands and Horticulture Ecosystem Services		Amount of Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in Atmosphere	https://giovanni.gsfc.nasa.gov/giovanni/ OMI/Aura NO2 Cloud-Screened Total and Tropospheric Column L3 Global Gridded 0.25 degree x 0.25 degree V3 (OMNO2d) Nickolay A. Krotkov, Lok N. Lamsal, Sergey V. Marchenko, Edward A. Celarier, Eric J.Bucsela, William H. Swartz, Joanna Joiner and the OMI core team (2019), OMI/Aura NO2 Cloud-Screened Total and Tropospheric Column L3 Global Gridded 0.25 degree x 0.25 degree V3, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center (GES DISC), Accessed: [Data Accessed during-July 2022], 10.5067/Aura/OMI/DATA3007
Wetland Ecosystem Services		Amount of Sulphur dioxide (SO2) in Atmosphere	https://giovanni.gsfc.nasa.gov/giovanni/ OMI/Aura Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Total Column L3 1 day Best Pixel in 0.25 degree x 0.25 degree V3 (OMSO2e) Can Li, Nickolay A. Krotkov, and Peter Leonard (2020), OMI/Aura Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Total Column L3 1 day Best Pixel in 0.25 degree x 0.25 degree V3, Greenbelt, MD, USA, Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center (GES DISC), Accessed: [Data Accessed during-July 2022], 10.5067/Aura/OMI/DATA3008
Percentage Uncultivable Land (2011)	https://karnataka.data.gov.in/	Amount of Black Carbon (BC) in Atmosphere	https://giovanni.gsfc.nasa.gov/giovanni/ MERRA-2 tavgM_2d_aer_Nx: 2d,Monthly mean,Time-averaged,Single-Level,Assimilation,Aerosol Diagnostics V5.12.4 (M2TMNXAER) Global Modeling and Assimilation Office (GMAO) (2015), MERRA-2 tavgM_2d_aer_Nx: 2d,Monthly mean,Time-averaged,Single-Level,Assimilation,Aerosol Diagnostics V5.12.4, Greenbelt, MD, USA, Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center (GES DISC), Accessed: [Data Accessed during-July 2022], 10.5067/FH9A0MLJPC7N
Stage of Ground Water Extraction	Karnataka Groundwater Resource Assessment Report as on March-2020 [11]	Amount of PM2.5 in Atmosphere	https://giovanni.gsfc.nasa.gov/giovanni/ MERRA-2 tavgM_2d_aer_Nx: 2d,Monthly mean,Time-averaged,Single-Level,Assimilation,Aerosol Diagnostics V5.12.4 (M2TMNXAER) Global Modeling and Assimilation Office (GMAO) (2015), MERRA-2 tavgM_2d_aer_Nx: 2d,Monthly mean,Time-averaged,Single-Level,Assimilation,Aerosol Diagnostics V5.12.4, Greenbelt, MD, USA, Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center (GES DISC), Accessed: [Data Accessed during-July 2022], 10.5067/FH9A0MLJPC7N
Amount of Carbon monoxide (CO) in Atmosphere	https://giovanni.gsfc.nasa.gov/giovanni/ AIRS/Aqua L3 Monthly Standard Physical Retrieval (AIRS-only) 1 degree x 1 degree V006 (AIRS3STM) AIRS Science Team/Joao Teixeira (2013), AIRS/Aqua L3 Monthly Standard Physical Retrieval (AIRS-only) 1 degree x 1 degree V006, Greenbelt, MD, USA, Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center (GES DISC), Accessed: [Data Accessed during-July 2022], 10.5067/Aqua/AIRS/DATA321

Table 2.7 Social Parameters

Social Parameter		Source	Social Parameter		Source
1	Population Density (Projected 2022)	https://karnataka.data.gov.in/	8	Pupil-Teacher Ratio (Schools)	District at a glance (DAG’s) from the individual districts’ websites [12].
2	Sex Ratio		9	Student-Lecturer Ratio (PU Colleges)
3	Literacy Rate (2011)		10	Number of Professional Degree Colleges per sq.km
4	Total Workers Population (2011)	District at a glance (DAG’s) from the individual districts’ websites [12].	11	Percentage of Households with Electricity	https://karnataka.data.gov.in/
5	Number of Hospitals per sq.km		12	Percentage of Households with LPG/PNG connections
6	Number of Medical Shops per sq.km		13	Number of Veterinary Hospitals per sq.km	District at a glance (DAG’s) from the individual districts’ websites [12].
7	Percentage of Irrigated Land (2011)	https://karnataka.data.gov.in/	14	Number of Internet Connections per sq.km

Table 2.8 Economic Parameters

Economic Parameter	Source
1. Per Capita Income	District at a glance (DAG’s) from the individual districts’ websites [12].
2. Number of Factories per sq.km
3. Number of employees in Factories per sq.km
4. Number of Small-scale Unit Registered District Industrial Centres per sq.km
5. Number of people working in Small-scale Unit Registered District Industrial Centres per sq.km
6. Number of Banks per sq.km
7. Number of Post Offices per sq.km
8.Length of Urban Roads per sq.km
9. Length of Rural Roads per sq.km
10. Number of Vehicles per sq.km

2.3 Computation of EPI

Karnataka taluk wise geospatial satellite data of various parameters is obtained as discussed in the Annexure 1.

EPI mapping at disaggregated levels was done by considering the distinct environmental, social and economic which helped to the taluk wise assessment of EPI. The classification of the various attributes with their weights needs a deep understanding of the ecosystem and its negative impact due to the stressed condition of increasing human activity in the name of economy and growth. The weights were assigned based on expert advice and a sound literature review. Aggregated weightages (equation 11) were computed as

Where n is the number of data sets, Vi is the value associated with criterion i, and Wi is the weight / score associated with that criterion. Each theme is described by a group of factors mapped, which were normalized between 10 to 2. 

Taluks were assigned a value of 10 for high priority / threshold, whereas 2 is converse to the above. The values 8, 6, and 4 correspond to high, moderate, and low levels of EPI based on the input factor values (Table 2.5 to 2.8). Weights/scores computed for each variable are aggregated for each taluk. In particular, the weights are based on an individual proxy and depend extensively on GIS techniques, which is the most effective method. Aggregation of environmental, social and economic score were provided a composite score for each taluk. Method adopted for computing EPI at taluk level for Karnataka is given in Figure 2.17.

Fig 2.17. Method adopted for computing EPI at taluk level for Karnataka

3.1 Environmental parameters 

1. Temperature: Karnataka generally experiences summer season from March to May. April and May are the hottest months in Karnataka. The northeast part of Karnataka experiences the highest temperature.

    2 meter (maximum) temperature: 2 meter (maximum) temperature has been chosen as the temperature indicator. Bidar and Raichur districts experience the highest temperature in the state. Average value of 2m (maximum) temperature in the month of April 2022 has been obtained from GIOVANNI website. Average value of 2m (maximum) temperature in the month of April 2022 in Karnataka was found to be 35.63 ⁰C. Temperature of 34 ⁰C has been set as the threshold.

   Average value of 2m (maximum) temperature in the month of April 2022 in ⁰C	Score
   <30.25	10
   30.25-31.5	8
   31.5-32.75	6
   32.75-34	4
   >34	2

   Weights were assigned to each taluk based on the average value of 2 m (maximum) temperature in the month of April 2022. Figure 3.1 depicts the temperature variability in Karnataka

   

   Figure 3.1. Maximum temperature variability during April 2022

   
   
2. Normal Rainfall

   Normal Rainfall is the average of the annual precipitation values over a 30-year period of a given specific area. The threshold has been set as 1200mm as Karnataka States’ normal rainfall (in 2021) was 1248mm (close to 1200mm).

   Normal Rainfall (2021) in mm	Score
   <1200	2
   1200-2000	4
   2000-3000	6
   3000-4000	8
   >4000	10

   Normal rainfall (in 2021) versus weights are as follows:

   

   Figure 3.2. Annual rainfall variability across Karnataka

   
   

    

3. Forest Cover

   Forest Cover is represented per taluk as the percentage of land covered by forests (forest area) to the total geographic land area. Weights were assigned based on the threshold as given in the following table. Even though the forest cover of State of Karnataka is 20.11% (Ramachandra et al., 2021a, 2021b), the threshold of 33%, is considered as per the norm and the goal set by Government of India set to achieve by 2030.

   Forest Cover (%)	Score
   <33	2
   33-40	4
   40-45	6
   45-50	8
   >50	10

   Forest Cover (2011) versus score assigned is as follows:

   

   Figure 3.3. Forest cover (%) across Karnataka

   
   
4. Forest Ecosystem Services

   Value of forest ecosystem services (district wise for the State of Karnataka) for the year 2019 is compiled from NCAVES report (Ramachandra et al., 2022c). Total Ecosystem Supply Value (TESV) is computed by aggregating provisional services, regulating services and cultural services.

   TESV of forest ecosystem was 2841 billion INR in 2005;, which declined to 1835 billion INR by 2019 (35% decline). The degradation of the ecosystem is the main cause of the decline (Ramachandra et al., 2021a, 2021b). In Karnataka, average value of TESV of forest ecosystem in 2019 was 7.89 billion rupees per year. The threshold has been set at 7.89 billion rupees.

   TESV of forest ecosystem in billion rupees	Score
   <7.89	2
   7.89-16	4
   16-24	6
   24-32	8
   >32	10

   TESV of forest ecosystem in billion rupees versus score assigned is as follows:

   

   Figure 3.4. Total ecosystem services per year – tulukwise for Karnataka

   
   
5. Agriculture (Croplands and Horticulture) Ecosystem Services

   Data pertaining to agriculture (croplands and horticulture ecosystem services) has been obtained district wise as per NCAVES report (Ramachandra et al., 2022c; 2022d). Total Ecosystem Supply Value (TESV) is computed by aggregating provisional services, regulating services and cultural services. In Karnataka, average value of TESV of croplands and horticulture ecosystem was 1144 million rupees per taluk. The threshold has been set as 1150 million rupees. 

   TESV of croplands and horticulture ecosystem in million rupees	Score
   <1150	2
   1150-1450	4
   1450-1750	6
   170-2050	8
   >2050	10

   TESV of croplands and horticulture ecosystem in million rupees versus score assigned is as follows:

   

   Figure 3.5: TESV of agriculture ecosystem

   
   
6. Wetland Ecosystem Services

   TESV of wetland ecosystem was 284.52 billion INR in 2019. Cultural, Regulating and Provisioning services contribute 13%, 69% and 18% to the TESV (Ramachandra et al., 2022e). In Karnataka, average value of TESV of wetland ecosystem in 2019 was 1.11 billion rupees per year per taluk. The threshold has been set as 1.11 billion rupees.

   TESV of wetland ecosystem in billion rupees	Score
   <1.11	2
   1.11-2	4
   2-3	6
   3-4	8
   >4	10

   TESV of wetland ecosystem in billion rupees versus score assigned is as follows:

   

   Figure 3.6. TESV of wetland ecosystem

   
   
7. Uncultivable Land

   Barren land and other uncultivable land constitute the land not available for cultivation. Percentage of land not available for cultivation to the total geographic land has been evaluated for each taluk (Ramachandra et al., 2021a,b). The threshold has been set as 6% as about 6% of total land area of India comes under this category.

   The percentage of uncultivable land	Score
   <3	10
   3-4	8
   4-5	6
   5-6	4
   >6	2

   Percentage of uncultivable (2011) land versus score assigned is as follows:

   

   Figure 3.7 percentage of uncultivable land

   
   
8. Stage of Ground Water extraction

   As per the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), under Ministry of Jal Shakti, Department of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, Government of India (http://cgwb.gov.in/): ‘The significant rate of (ground) water level decline are taken between 10 to 20 cm per year depending upon the local hydrogeological conditions. There are four categories, namely - 'Safe’ (<=70%) areas which have ground water potential for development; 'Semi-critical’ (70%-90%) areas where cautious groundwater development is recommended; 'Critical’ (90%-100%) areas; and 'Over-exploited’ (>=100%) areas, where there should be intensive monitoring and evaluation and future ground development be linked with water conservation measures.’.

   Stage of Ground Water extraction (%)	Score
   0-40	10
   40-70	8
   70-80	6
   80-90	4
   >90	2

   In this work. stage of Ground Water extraction (2011) versus score/weight assigned is as follows:

   

   Figure 3,8. Status of groundwater extraction

   
   
9. Amount of Carbon dioxide (CO₂) in Atmosphere

   Unit: Column averaged dry mole fraction of CO₂ in atmosphere

   Concentration of carbon dioxide is higher in the winter season as there is reduced photosynthesis activity of plants due to shedding of their leaves. In Karnataka, concentration of CO₂ was found to be highest in January 2022.

   In Karnataka, average concentration of CO2 in January 2022 was 414 ppm (parts per million). Threshold of 413 ppm has been set for assigning weights.

   Concentration of CO2 in ppm (01-2022)	Score
   <410	10
   410-411	8
   411-412	6
   412-413	4
   >413	2

   Concentration of CO2 in ppm vs score assigned is as follows: 

   

   Figure 3.9. Carbon concentration

   
   
10. Amount of Carbon monoxide (CO) in Atmosphere

    Unit: Carbon Monoxide mole fraction in air

    Concentration of carbon monoxide is generally higher in the winter season as people are more likely to opt for space heating. In Karnataka, concentration of CO was found to be highest in March. In Karnataka, average concentration of CO in March 2022 was 146.7 ppbv (parts per billion by volume). Threshold of 144 ppbv has been considered for assigning weights.

    Concentration of COin ppbv(03-2022)	Score
    <135	10
    135-138	8
    138-141	6
    141-144	4
    >144	2

    Concentration of CO in ppbv vs score assigned is as follows:

    

    Figure 3.10. CO concentration in Karnataka (taluk wise)

    
    
11. Amount of Methane (CH₄) in Atmosphere

    Unit: Methane mole fraction in air 

    Concentration of methane is generally higher in the winter season. In Karnataka, concentration of CH₄ was found to be highest in February month in 2022 and average concentration of CH4 in February 2022 was 1859.9 ppbv (parts per billion by volume). 1860 ppbv has been set as the threshold.

    Concentration of CH4 in ppbv (02-2022)	Score
    <1836	10
    1836-1848	8
    1848-1854	6
    1854-1860	4
    >1860	2

    Concentration of CH₄ in ppbv vs score assigned is as follows:

    

    Figure 3.11. methane concentration in Karnataka

    
    
12. Amount of Ozone (O₃) in Atmosphere

    Unit: Total column of ozone in the atmosphere

    The concentration of ozone is higher in the summer season. It is due to the fact that the reactions that create ozone are catalyzed by heat and sunlight and there is more heat and sunlight in summer. In Karnataka, concentration of O₃ was found to be highest in May month in 2022. In Karnataka, average concentration of O3 in May 2022 was 279.93 DU (Dobson units), which is considered as threshold for assigning weights.

    Concentration of O3 in DU (05-2022)	Score
    <275.5	10
    275.5-277	8
    277-278.5	6
    278.5-280	4
    >280	2

    Concentration of O₃ in DU vs score assigned is as follows:

    

    Figure 3.12. Ozone concentration in Karnataka

    
    
13. Amount of Formaldehyde (HCHO) in Atmosphere

    Unit: Column averaged concentration of formaldehyde in the atmosphere

    The concentration of HCHO is higher in the winter season. In Karnataka, concentration of HCHO was found to be highest in February month in 2022. In Karnataka, average concentration of HCHO in February 2022 was 7.26E+15 molecules per sq.cm, which was considered as threshold for assigning weights.

    Number of molecules per sq.cm (02-2022)	Score
    <5.16E+15	10
    5.16E+15-5.86E+15	8
    5.86E+15-6.56E+15	6
    6.56E+15-7.26E+15	4
    >7.26E+15	2

    Concentration of HCHO in (number of) molecules per sq.cm vs score assigned is as follows:

    

    Figure 3.13. Amount of formaldehyde during February in Karnataka

    
    

14. Amount of Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) in Atmosphere

    Unit: Total column of nitrogen dioxide in the atmosphere

    Concentration of nitrogen dioxide is generally higher during the winter season. It is due to heavier use of combustion power plants for wintertime home heating, as well as the fact that NO₂ stays longer in the air during winter. In Karnataka, concentration of NO₂ was found to be highest in the month of March in 2022. In Karnataka, average concentration of NO₂ in March 2022 was 3.79E+15 molecules per sq.cm, which was considered as the threshold.

    Concentration of NO2 in (number of) molecules per sq.cm (03-2022)	Score
    <3.2E+15	10
    3.2E+15-3.4E+15	8
    3.4E+15-3.6E+15	6
    3.6E+15-3.8E+15	4
    >3.8E+15	2

    Concentration of NO2 in (number of) molecules per sq.cm vs score assigned is as follows:

    

    Figure 3.14. NO2 concentration in atmosphere

    
    
15. Amount of Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) in Atmosphere

    Unit: Total column of Sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere

    Concentration of Sulphur dioxide is generally higher in the winter season due to low temperature and low wind speeds. In Karnataka, concentration of SO₂ was found to be highest in January month in 2022. In Karnataka, average concentration of SO₂ in January 2022 was 0.113 DU (Dobson units) and 0.12 DU is considered as the threshold.

    Concentration of SO2 in DU (01-2022)	Score
    <0.06	10
    0.06-0.08	8
    0.08-0.1	6
    0.1-0.12	4
    >0.12	2

    Concentration of SO₂ in DU vs score assigned is as follows:

    

    Figure 3.15. Concentration of SO2 in Karnataka

    
    
16. Amount of Black Carbon (BC) in Atmosphere

    Unit: Surface mass concentration of black carbon

    Concentration of black carbon is generally higher during the pre-monsoon season (February, March and April). In Karnataka, concentration of BC was found to be highest in February month in 2022. In Karnataka, average concentration of BC in February 2022 was 1.69E-09 kg per cubic meter. 1.7E-09 kg per cubic meter has been set as the threshold.

    Concentration of BC in kg per cubic meter (02-2022)	Score
    <1.52E-09	10
    1.52E-09-1.58E-09	8
    1.58E-09-1.64E-09	6
    1.64E-09-1.7E-09	4
    >1.7E-09	2

    Concentration of BC in kg per cubic meter vs score assigned is as follows:

    

    Figure 3.16 Concentration of Black carbon in Karnataka

    
    
17. Amount of Particulate Matter-2.5 (PM2.5) in Atmosphere

    Unit: Surface mass concentration of PM2.5

    Concentration of PM2.5 is generally high in the winter season. It is due to photooxidation, high concentration of nitric oxide and higher hydrocarbon emissions to the atmosphere due to cold temperature. In Karnataka, concentration of PM2.5 was found to be highest in December month in 2021. In Karnataka, average concentration of PM2.5 in December 2021 was 2.84E-08 kg per cubic meter. PM2.5 of 2.84E-08 kg per cubic meter is considered as the threshold.

    Concentration of PM2.5 in kg per cubic meter (12-2021)	Score
    <2.24E-08	10
    2.24E-08-2.44E-08	8
    2.44E-08-2.64E-08	6
    2.64E-08-2.84E-08	4
    >2.84E-08	2

    Concentration of PM2.5 in kg per cubic meter vs score assigned is as follows:

    

    Figure 3.17. Concentration of PM2.5

    
    

3.1.1 Total Environmental Score (TEnS)

Figure 3.18. Total environment score -taluk wise for Karnataka

Aggregation of 17 environmental (Eni) parameters was done (equation 2) to compute TEnS, total environmental score (equation 2). Figure 3.18 gives the aggregate environment score and Table 3.1.1 lists taluk wise composite environment score.   

Table 3.1.1 Composite environment score (taluk wise) for Karnataka Click to load

3.2 Social Parameters

1. Population Density

   Population density is the concentration of individuals in a specific geographic locale. Numerically it is the ratio of number of individuals to the geographic area. The threshold has been set as 400 considering mean population density of Karnataka is 382.

   Population density per sq.km	Score
   0-100	10
   100-200	8
   200-300	6
   300-400	4
   >400	2

   Population density (2022) versus score assigned is as follows:

   

   Figure 3.19. Population density across taluks, Karnataka

   
   
2. Sex Ratio

   Sex ratio is the ratio of number of females to males in a population. The threshold has been set as 0.950.

   Sex Ratio	Score
   <0.950	2
   0.950-0.9625	4
   0.9625-0.975	6
   0.975-0.9875	8
   >0.9875	10

   Sex ratio (2022) versus score assigned is as follows:

   

   Figure 3.20. Taluk wise sex ratio in Karnataka

   
   
3. Literacy Rate

    Literacy rate is defined as the percentage of population aged 15 and over that can read and write. The threshold has been set as 75% considering average literacy rate of 75.36% in Karnataka State.

   Literacy Rate	Score
   <75	2
   75-81.25	4
   81.25-87.5	6
   87.5-93.75	8
   93.75-100	10

   Literacy rate (2011) versus score assigned is as follows:

   

   Figure 3.21. Literacy rate in Karnataka

   
   
4. Total Workers Percentage

   Percentage of total (main workers+marginal workers) workers to the total population is evaluated. The average is 46.83% and threshold has been set as 50%.

   Total Workers Percentage	Score
   <50	2
   50-60	4
   60-70	6
   70-80	8
   80-100	10

   Total workers percentage (2011) versus score assigned is as follows:

   

   Figure 3.22 workers (%) in Karnataka

   
   
5. Total Workers Percentage

   Percentage of total (main workers+marginal workers) workers to the total population is evaluated. The average is 46.83% and threshold has been set as 50%.

   Total Workers Percentage	Score
   <50	2
   50-60	4
   60-70	6
   70-80	8
   80-100	10

   Total workers percentage (2011) versus score assigned is as follows:

   

   Figure 3.23 number of hospitals per sq.km in Karnataka

   
   
6. Number of Medical Shops per sq.km

   Total number of medical shops/stores per sq.km of the total geographic area of each taluk has been calculated. Number of medical shops per sq.km in Karnataka is about 0.21, and the threshold considered is 0.2.

   Number of medical shops per sq.km	Score
   <0.2	2
   0.2-0.6	4
   0.6-1	6
   1-2	8
   >2	10

   Number of medical shops per sq.km versus score assigned is as follows:

   

   Figure 3.24 Number of medical shops per sq.km in Karnataka, taluk wise

   
   
7. Percentage of Irrigated Land (2011)

   Irrigated Lands refer to the agricultural lands that are provided with supplemental water from various sources like canals, tube wells, bore wells etc. in order to optimize and enhance crop production and yield. Percentage of irrigated land (2011) to the total net sown area has been evaluated for each taluk. The average percentage of irrigated land to the total net sown area is about 26.5%, and the threshold considered is 26.5%.

   Percentage of Irrigated land(2011)	Score
   <26.5	2
   26.5-40	4
   40-60	6
   60-80	8
   80-100	10

   Percentage of irrigated land versus score assigned is as follows:

   

   Figure 3.25 percentage of irrigated lands in Karnataka

   
   
8. Pupil-Teacher Ratio (Schools)

   Pupil-Teacher ratio (primary & high school) is the ratio of total number of students to the total number of teachers. Ideal Pupil-Teacher ratio is 30. Pupil-Teacher ratio in Karnataka is about 25.5 and the threshold considered is 25.

   Pupil-Teacher ratio	Score
   <17.5	10
   17.5-20	8
   20-22.5	6
   22.5-25	4
   >25	2

   Pupil-Teacher ratio versus score assigned is as follows:

   

   Figure 3.26 Pupil to teacher ratio in Karnataka

   
   
9. Student-Lecturer Ratio (PU Colleges)

   Student-Lecturer Ratio is the ratio of total number of students to the total number of lecturers in PU colleges. Student-Lecturer Ratio in Karnataka is about 27 and the threshold of 22.5 is considered in the current analyses.

   Student-Lecturer Ratio	Score
   <15	10
   15-17.5	8
   17.5-20	6
   20-22.5	4
   >22.5	2

   Student-Lecturer ratio versus score assigned is as follows: 

   

   Figure 3.27 student to lecturer ratio in Karnataka

   
   

10. Number of Professional Degree Colleges per sq.km

    Total number of professional degree colleges (including polytechnic colleges) per sq.km of the total geographic area of each taluk has been calculated. These include General Degree Colleges, Medical Colleges, Dental Colleges, Engineering Colleges and Polytechnic Colleges. These consist of both government and private colleges. Number of professional degree colleges per sq.km in Karnataka is about 0.0116, and the threshold considered is 0.012.

    Number of Professional Degree Colleges per sq.km	Score
    <0.012	2
    0.012-0.03	4
    0.03-0.05	6
    0.05-0.07	8
    >0.07	10

    Number of professional degree colleges per sq.km versus score assigned is as follows:

    

    Figure 3. 28 number of professional degree colleges in Karnatka

    
    
11. Percentage of Households with Electricity

    Percentage of households with electricity (in 2011) has been obtained for each

    taluk. Percentage of households with electricity in Karnataka is 88.52 and a threshold of 90% is considered for assigning weights.

    Percentage of households with electricity	Score
    <90	2
    90-93	4
    93-96	6
    96-99	8
    <99	10

    Percentage of households with electricity vs score assigned is as follows:

    

    Figure 3.29 percentage of households with electricity in Karnataka

    
    
12. Percentage of Households with LPG/PNG connections

    Percentage of households with LPG/PNG connections (in 2011) has been obtained for each taluk. Percentage of households with LPG/PNG connections in Karnataka is 19.83 and a threshold of 20% is considered for assigning weights.

    Percentage of households with LPG/PNG connections	Score
    <20	2
    20-40	4
    40-60	6
    60-80	8
    >80	10

    Percentage of households with LPG/PNG connections vs score assigned is as follows:

    

    Figure 3.30 Percentage of households with LPG/PNG connections

    
    
13. Number of Veterinary Hospitals per sq.km

    Number of veterinary hospitals per 100 sq.kms of the total geographic area of each taluk has been calculated. Number of veterinary hospitals per 100sq.kms in Karnataka is about 2.85, and the threshold of 3 was considered for assigning weights.

    Number of veterinary hospitals per 100 sq.km	Score
    <3	2
    3-5	4
    5-7	6
    7-9	8
    >9	10

    Number of veterinary hospitals per 100 sq.km versus score assigned is as follows:

    

    Figure 3.31 Number of veterinary hospitals per sq.km. in Karnataka

    
    

14. Number of Internet Connections per sq.km

       Number of internet connections per sq.km of the total geographic area of each taluk has been obtained. The average number of internet connections per sq.km in Karnataka is about 3.65, and the threshold of 3.65 is considered for assigning weights. 

    Number of internet connections per sq.km	Score
    <3.65	2
    3.65-10	4
    10-50	6
    50-100	8
    >100	10

    Number of internet connections per sq.km versus score assigned is as follows:

    

    Figure 3.32 Number of internet connections per sq.km in Karnataka

    
    

3.2.1 Total Social Score (TSS) 

Aggregation (as per equation 3) of social variables (Si) for each taluk provided total social score (TSS). Figure 3.33 depicts the aggregated social score taukwise for Karnataka. Table 3.2.1 lists aggregated social score taluk-wise for Karnataka.

Figure 3.33 The aggregated social score taukwise for Karnataka

Table 3.2.1 Aggregate social score - taluk wise for Karnataka Click to load

3.3 Economic Parameters

1. Per Capita Income

   Per capita income is the average income earned per person in a given specific area in a specific annual year. Numerically per capita income is the total income of the region divided by total population of the region. The per capita income at constant prices (in the fiscal year 2018-19) was 1.67 lakhs (nearer to 1.5lakhs) in Karnataka and the threshold of 1.5 lakh rupees is considered for assigning weights.

   Per Capita Income(at constant prices)(2018-19) in lakh rupees	Score
   <1.5	2
   1.5-2.5	4
   2.5-3.5	6
   3.5-4.5	8
   >4.5	10

   Per capita income (at constant prices) (2018-19) versus score assigned is as follows:

   

   Figure 3.34 Taluk wise per capita income in Karnataka

   
   
2. Number of Factories per sq.km

   Number of factories per sq.km of the total geographic area of each taluk has been calculated. Number of factories per sq.km in Karnataka is 0.265, and the threshold of 0.25 is considered for assigning weights.

   Number of Factories per sq.km	Score
   <0.25	2
   0.25-1.5	4
   1.5-2.75	6
   2.75-4	8
   >4	10

   Number of factories per sq.km versus score assigned is as follows:

   

   Figure 3.35 Number of factories per sq.km in Karnataka

   
   
3. Number of employees in Factories per sq.km

   Number of people working in factories per sq.km of the total geographic area of each taluk has been calculated. Number of employees in factories per sq.km in Karnataka is about 16.8, and the threshold of 17 is considered for assigning weights.

   Number of employees in Factories per sq.km	Score
   <17	2
   17-50	4
   50-100	6
   100-200	8
   >200	10

   Number of people working in factories per sq.km versus score assigned is as follows:

   

   Figure 3.36 Number of employees in factories per sq.km in Karnataka

   
   
4. Number of Small-scale Unit Registered at District Industrial Centres per sq.km

   Number of small-scale unit registered DICs per sq.km of the total geographic area of each taluk has been calculated. Number of small-scale unit registered DICs per sq.km in Karnataka is 4.65, and the threshold of 4 was considered for assigning weights.

   Number of small scale unit registered DICs per sq.km	Score
   <4	2
   4-10	4
   10-15	6
   15-20	8
   >20	10

   Number of small-scale unit registered DICs per sq.km versus score assigned is as follows: 

   

   Figure 3.37 Number of Small-scale Unit Registered at District Industrial Centres per sq.km in Karnataka

   
   
5. Number of people working in Small-scale Unit Registered at District Industrial Centres per sq.km

   Number of people working in small scale unit registered at DICs per sq.km of the total geographic area of each taluk has been calculated. Number of people working in small scale unit registered DICs per sq.km in Karnataka is about 31.69, and the threshold of 30 is considered

   Number people working in DICs per sq.km	Score
   <30	2
   30-100	4
   100-250	6
   250-500	8
   >500	10

   Number of people working in small scale unit registered DICs per sq.km versus score assigned is as follows:

   

   Figure 3.38 Number of people working in Small-scale Unit Registered at District Industrial Centres per sq.km in Karnataka

   
   
6. Number of Banks per sq.km

   Total number of banks/bank branches per sq.km of the total geographic area of each taluk has been calculated. These include all the commercial banks i.e., Public, Private, District and Foreign banks. Number of banks per sq.km in Karnataka is about 0.061, and the threshold of 0.06 is considered.

   Number people working in DICs per sq.km	Score
   <30	2
   30-100	4
   100-250	6
   250-500	8
   >500	10

   Number of banks per sq.km versus score assigned is as follows:

   

   Figure 3.39 Number of Banks per sq.km in Karnataka (taluk wise)

   
   
7. Number of Post Offices per sq.km

   Total number of post offices per sq.km of the total geographic area of each taluk has been calculated. Number of post offices per sq.km in Karnataka is about 0.06, and the threshold of 0.06 so the threshold has been set as 0.06.

   Number of post offices per sq.km	Score
   <0.06	2
   0.06-0.1	4
   0.1-0.15	6
   0.15-0.2	8
   >0.2	10

   Number of post offices per sq.km versus score assigned is as follows:

   

   Figure 3.40 Number of Banks per sq.km in Karnataka

   
   
8. Length of Urban Roads per sq.km

   Total length of Urban roads (in km) per sq.km of the total geographic area of each taluk has been calculated. Urban roads include National Highways, State Highways and Major District Roads. Length of urban roads per sq.km in Karnataka is 0.484, and the threshold of 0.48 is considered for assigning weights.

   Length of urban roads per sq.km	Score
   <0.48	2
   0.48-0.75	4
   0.75-1	6
   1-1.25	8
   >1.25	10

    Length of urban roads per sq.km versus score assigned is as follows:

   

   Figure 3.41 Length of Urban Roads per sq.km in Karnataka

   
   
9. Length of Rural Roads per sq.km

   Total length of Rural roads (in km) per sq.km of the total geographic area of each taluk has been calculated. Length of rural roads per sq.km in Karnataka is 1.116, and the threshold of 1.12 is considered for assigning weights.

   Length of rural roads per sq.km	Score
   <1.12	2
   1.12-2.4	4
   2.4-3.6	6
   3.6-4.8	8
   >4.8	10

   Length of rural roads per sq.km versus score assigned is as follows:

   

   Figure 3.42 Length of Rural Roads per sq.km in Karnataka

   
   
10. Number of Vehicles per sq.km

    Total number of vehicles per sq.km of the total geographic area of each taluk has been calculated. Mean number of vehicles per sq.km in Karnataka is about 214.65, and the threshold of 215 is considered for assigning weights.

    Number of vehicles per sq.km	Score
    <215	2
    215-500	4
    500-750	6
    750-1000	8
    >1000	10

    Number of vehicles per sq.km versus score assigned is as follows:

    

    Figure 3.43 Number of Vehicles per sq.km in Karnataka

    
    

3.3.1 Total Economic Score (TEcS)

Total economic score (TEcS) is computed taluk wise for Karnataka by aggregating weights 10 economic (Eci) variables (equation 4) which are depicted in Figure 3.44 and Table 3.4.1 lists total economic score for taluks in Karnataka.

Figure 3.44 Total economic score - taukwise for Karnataka

Table 3.3.1 Taluk wise, total economic score Click to load

3.4 Environmental Performance Indices

EPI is computed for each taluk as per equation 5,

EPI = TEnS+TSS+TEcS ….5

EPI computed taluk-wise is depicted in Figure 3.45 and listed taluk wise in Table 3.4.1

Figure 3.45 Talukwise EPI for Karnataka

Table 3.4.1 EPI (taluk wise for Karnataka) Click to load

EPI computed considering environmental (17 variables, Eni), Social (14 variables, Si) and economic (Eci) show wide variability indicating skewed developmental and environmental conservation path being practiced in Karnataka. Highest EPI being 207 (Mangalore), Udupi (199), Moodbidri (169), while lowest are Gurumithakala (51.6) and Afzalpur (53).

Taluks in the Western Ghats region have better environmental score (Bhatkal, 88.8; Sulya 88.5; Ankola, 85.1; Hebri, 82.3; Kumta, 81.8; Siddapur, 81.6; Sringeri 81.1, siris, 81, Yellapur, 81, Madikeri 79.3) compared to taluks in the northern Karnataka (mudhol 21.3; Chadchana 21.7; Bagalkote 22.3; Chittapur 22.5; Dadami 23.8; Athani 24.7; Sedam 25.3; Bhalki 25.5).

Considering Social parameters, Mangalore (82.3), Udupi (67.9), Huballi nagara (67.1), Bangalore east (64.4), Mysore (63.6), Mudbidri (60.9) are relatively better compared to northern Karnataka taluks (Gurumithakala 18.2; Afzalpur 19.3; Aland 19.8; Basavakalyan 204; Kundgol 22.1; Shiggaon 22.4; Aurad 22.4, etc.

Taluks such as Bangalore-South (74), Yelahanka (67.8), Bangalore-East (65.1), Udupi (61.5), Anekal (57.4), Bangalore (North) 57.3, Gokak (51.8) are economically vibrant taluks, while Hosadurga (5.8), Saraguru (5.6), Bhalki (5.3), Kushtagi (5.3), Aland (5.2), Chincholi (4.8), Kollegala (4.7), Afzalpur (4.6), Joida (2.6), etc. in Northern Karnataka are economically very backward taluks

EPI computed considering environmental (17 variables, Eni), Social (14 variables, Si) and economic (Eci) show wide variability indicating skewed developmental and environmental conservation path being practiced in Karnataka. Highest EPI being 207 (Mangalore), Udupi (199), Moodbidri (169), while lowest are Gurumithakala (51.6) and Afzalpur (53).

Taluks in the Western Ghats region have better environmental score (Bhatkal, 88.8; Sulya 88.5; Ankola, 85.1; Hebri, 82.3; Kumta, 81.8; Siddapur, 81.6; Sringeri 81.1, siris, 81, Yellapur, 81, Madikeri 79.3) compared to taluks in the northern Karnataka (mudhol 21.3; Chadchana 21.7; Bagalkote 22.3; Chittapur 22.5; Dadami 23.8; Athani 24.7; Sedam 25.3; Bhalki 25.5).

Considering Social parameters, Mangalore (82.3), Udupi (67.9), Huballi nagara (67.1), Bangalore east (64.4), Mysore (63.6), Mudbidri (60.9) are relatively better compared to northern Karnataka taluks (Gurumithakala 18.2; Afzalpur 19.3; Aland 19.8; Basavakalyan 204; Kundgol 22.1; Shiggaon 22.4; Aurad 22.4, etc.

Taluks such as Bangalore-South (74), Yelahanka (67.8), Bangalore-East (65.1), Udupi (61.5), Anekal (57.4), Bangalore (North) 57.3, Gokak (51.8) are economically vibrant taluks, while Hosadurga (5.8), Saraguru (5.6), Bhalki (5.3), Kushtagi (5.3), Aland (5.2), Chincholi (4.8), Kollegala (4.7), Afzalpur (4.6), Joida (2.6), etc. in Northern Karnataka are economically very backward taluks

Highlights of the current analyses are:

	Highest	lowest
Environmental Score (out of 170)	Bhatkal (89)	Mudhol (21)
Social Score (out of 140)	Mangalore (82)	Gurumithakala (18)
Economic Score (out of 100)	Bengaluru-South (74)	Joida (03)
EPI (out of 410)	Mangalore (207)	Gurumithakala (52)

• Southwestern part of Karnataka outperforms the rest of the state. It excels in the environmental sector and performs reasonably well in the other two sectors. There is still considerable potential for economic and social growth.
• Northern Karnataka lags in all sectors. It performs lower in the Economic sector.
• Southeastern region of Karnataka performs reasonably well in the economic and social sectors but falls short in the environmental sector. 
• Bengaluru, the state capital, excels in economic and social sectors. However, policies must be made to prevent overpopulation and vehicle congestion. The environmental sector needs more attention.

Policies and initiatives must be formulated with the objective of ensuring a long-term sustainable future. Adaptations in the regional policies (environmental, social and economic) for prudent management of natural resources (land, water, energy, etc.) are crucial to accomplish sufficiency in biophysical resources while bestowing social equity in access and overall economic progress.

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17. Load .shp file with a clear boundary of the region of which data is required.
    
18. Click on the Toolbox option present in the Attributes Toolbar or use the shortcut Alt+Ctrl+T. Processing Toolbox window appears on the right side of the screen.
    
19. Click on Interpolation in Processing Toolbox. A drop-down menu appears and select the type of interpolation to perform. Here IDW (Inverse Distance Weighing) Interpolation is selected.
    
20. Double click on the selected (IDW) interpolation operation. A new IDW Interpolation window appears.
    
21. Select the 1) Vector Layer 2) Interpolation Attribute and click on the ‘+’ symbol. The input layer information (vector layer, attribute and type) appears on the window.
    
22. Choose 1) Distance coefficient 2) Extent of interpolation region and 3) the location where the interpolated must be saved. (While choosing the location a new window appears and you can also choose the format in which the interpolated file is saved)
23. Click on the Run option.
    
24. The interpolation process begins. After the process is completed, the interpolated layer is obtained.
    
    Zonal Statistics is performed to obtain(convert) the interpolated data in .csv format.
    
25. After the interpolated layer is obtained, select Raster Analysis option present in the Processing Toolbox. A drop-down menu appears and double click on Zonal Statistics.
    
26. Zonal Statistics window appears.
    
27. Select 1) Input Layer 2) Raster Layer 3) Output column prefix 4) Statistics to calculate [count, sum, mean, median, standard deviation, minimum, maximum etc.] and 5) Location where .csv file is to be stored.
28. Click on the Run option.
    
29. The zonal statistics process begins. After the process is completed, the .csv file is obtained in the provided location.
    
30. Result-
    The obtained .csv file:
    

1. https://www.sdgindex.org/


2. https://epi.yale.edu/ 


3. Image source-https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Doughnut_(economic_model).jpg 


4. https://sdgindiaindex.niti.gov.in/#/ranking 


5. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339645265_Safe_and_Just_Operating_Space_for_India


6. https://www.e3s-conferences.org/articles/e3sconf/abs/2018/16/e3sconf_iims2018_02003.html


7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Karnataka 


8. https://www.kla.kar.nic.in/karnataka.htm


9. https://prsindia.org/budgets/states/karnataka-budget-analysis-2020-21


10. https://wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/NCAVES/IISc_Ecosystemservices_2JUNE2022%5b2227%5d.pdf
    Ramachandra, T.V., Vinay, S., Bharath, Setturu, and Bharath, H. Aithal (2022).
    Valuation of Ecosystem Services, Karnataka State, India. Available at:
    https://wgbis.ces.iisc.ac.in/energy/NCAVES/00_IISc_3_Ecosystemservices_2JUNE2022.pdf


11. https://antharjala.karnataka.gov.in/storage/pdf-files/Karnataka 
    Ramachandra, T.V., Bharath Setturu, Vinay S and Bharath H Aithal. 2021a. Ecosystem Extent Account for Karnataka. Available at:
    https://wgbis.ces.iisc.ac.in/energy/NCAVES/00_IISc_1_TVR_Ecosystem-extent_F_31July22.pdf
    Ramachandra, T.V., Bharath Setturu, Vinay S, Rakesh D.R. and Bharath H Aithal. 2021b. Ecosystem Condition Account for Karnataka State, India. Available at:
    https://wgbis.ces.iisc.ac.in/energy/NCAVES/00_IISc_2_Ecosystem_conditions.28July22.pdf
    Ramachandra, T.V., Vinay, S., Bharath, Setturu, and Bharath, H. Aithal (2022a).
    Valuation of Ecosystem Services, Karnataka State, India. Available at:
    https://wgbis.ces.iisc.ac.in/energy/NCAVES/00_IISc_3_Ecosystemservices_2JUNE2022.pdf
    Ramachandra, T.V., Bharath Setturu, Vinay S, Chandan M C and Bharath H Aithal,
    (2022c). Scenario-based assessment of policy interventions in Karnataka State, India. Available at: https://wgbis.ces.iisc.ac.in/energy/NCAVES/00_IISc_4_REV_MODELING_27july22.pdf
    Ramachandra T V, Sincy V, Asulabha K S, Aishwarya B H and Bharath H Aithal, 2022d. Natural Capital Accounting and Valuation of Lentic Aquatic Ecosystem Services in Karnataka, Strategy Paper 3, Published by Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Bangalore


12. Data is obtained from the following Districts at a glance (DAGs):
    
    

    District at a glance	Source
    Ballari at a glance2017-18	https://cdn.s3waas.gov.in/s37c590f01490190db0ed02a5070e20f01/ uploads/2019/05/2019052786.pdf
    Belagavi at a glance2017-18	https://cdn.s3waas.gov.in/s382f2b308c3b01637c607ce05f52a2fed/ uploads/2019/07/2019070659.pdf
    Bagalkote at a glance2016-17	https://cdn.s3waas.gov.in/s3a1d33d0dfec820b41b54430b50e96b5c/ uploads/2018/11/2018110527.pdf
    Bengaluru Rural at a glance2016-17	https://cdn.s3waas.gov.in/s3aba3b6fd5d186d28e06ff97135cade7f/ uploads/2018/07/2018072186.pdf
    Bengaluru Urban at a glance2016-17	https://cdn.s3waas.gov.in/s33621f1454cacf995530ea53652ddf8fb/ uploads/2018/07/2018072371.pdf
    Bidar at a glance 2014-15	https://cdn.s3waas.gov.in/s32ca65f58e35d9ad45bf7f3ae5cfd08f1/ uploads/2018/07/2018071331.pdf
    Chamarajanagar at a glance2016-17	https://cdn.s3waas.gov.in/s3959a557f5f6beb411fd954f3f34b21c3/ uploads/2018/09/2018092973.pdf
    Chikkaballapur at glance2019-20
    Chikkamangaluruat a glance2019-20	https://drive.google.com/file/d/1fKzAjP0CI2LjBRyEPusG8OoHIC3FvWvB/view
    Chitradurgaat a glance2018-19	https://cdn.s3waas.gov.in/s3a8ecbabae151abacba7dbde04f761c37/ uploads/2020/09/2020092591.pdf
    Dakshina Kannada at a glance2020-21	https://cdn.s3waas.gov.in/s33a835d3215755c435ef4fe9965a3f2a0/ uploads/2022/04/2022041923.pdf
    Davanagereat a glance2016-17	https://cdn.s3waas.gov.in/s3a8e864d04c95572d1aece099af852d0a/ uploads/2018/08/2018081881.pdf
    Dharwad at a glance2020-21	https://cdn.s3waas.gov.in/s3eefc9e10ebdc4a2333b42b2dbb8f27b6/ uploads/2022/05/2022051693.pdf
    Gadagat a glance 2017-18	https://cdn.s3waas.gov.in/s3912d2b1c7b2826caf99687388d2e8f7c/ uploads/2019/06/2019062463.pdf
    Hassan at a glance 2018-19
    Haveri at a glance 2019-20	https://cdn.s3waas.gov.in/s3d5cfead94f5350c12c322b5b664544c1/ uploads/2021/08/2021081160.pdf
    Kalaburagi at a glance 2016-17	https://cdn.s3waas.gov.in/s306997f04a7db92466a2baa6ebc8b872d/ uploads/2018/08/2018080318.pdf
    Kodagu at a glance 2018-19	https://drive.google.com/file/d/1SSjq8UiHN7HXNvkonizJ6Qp8viiVy0wO/view
    Kolar at a glance 2017-18	https://cdn.s3waas.gov.in/s3c0f168ce8900fa56e57789e2a2f2c9d0/ uploads/2019/06/2019060498.pdf
    Koppalat a glance 2016-17	https://cdn.s3waas.gov.in/s36cd67d9b6f0150c77bda2eda01ae484c/ uploads/2018/08/2018082577.pdf
    Mandyaat a glance 2015-16	https://cdn.s3waas.gov.in/s3f1c1592588411002af340cbaedd6fc33/ uploads/2018/07/2018072446.pdf
    Mysuru at a glance 2019-20	https://drive.google.com/file/d/1KuV3poxrYnmynLKKy0_wRkpkqWZXCGYw/view
    Ramanagaraat a glance 2015-16	https://cdn.s3waas.gov.in/s35f0f5e5f33945135b874349cfbed4fb9/ uploads/2018/09/2018090191.pdf
    Shimogaat a glance2018-19	https://cdn.s3waas.gov.in/s3d4c2e4a3297fe25a71d030b67eb83bfc/ uploads/2020/03/2020032386.pdf
    Tumkur at a glance2016-17	https://cdn.s3waas.gov.in/s3edfbe1afcf9246bb0d40eb4d8027d90f/ uploads/2018/08/2018082767.pdf
    Udupi at a Glance 2015-16	http://14.139.60.153/bitstream/123456789/12280/1/ Udupi%20District%20at%20a%20Glance%202015-16_Karnataka.pdf
    Uttarakannadaat a glance2019-20	http://uttarakannada.nic.in/docs/Publication/Stat2019-20.pdf
    Vijayapura at a glance2017-18	https://cdn.s3waas.gov.in/s3fa14d4fe2f19414de3ebd9f63d5c0169/ uploads/2019/06/2019060728.pdf
    Yadgiri at a glance2014-15	https://cdn.s3waas.gov.in/s3ba3866600c3540f67c1e9575e213be0a/ uploads/2018/06/2018062682.pdf

    The data for districts whose DAGs are not available is taken from Karnataka at a glance 2020-21(source-https://des.karnataka.gov.in/storage/pdffiles/PTC/KAG%20FINAL%202020-21.pdf ).

Data from the above websites pertains to following mentioned years for the corresponding mentioned places as data is not uniformly available for one particular year.