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ENVIS Technical Report: 29
October 2008
Ecological Status of Kali River Flood Plain |
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5.0 Results and Discussion
Hill tops, slopes and many of the Karwar valleys were covered with a more or less dense forest growth (Bombay gazetteer, 1883). The best forests were on the slopes and in the valleys facing the Kali River. The study area (flood plains of Kali) falls within 25 km from the boundary of Anshi Dandeli Tiger reserve (which is the third for the state of Karnataka). Anshi Dandeli Tiger reserve is spread over an area of approximately 825 sq. km and encloses Anshi National park (250 sq. km) and Dandeli Wild Life Sanctuary. Black Panther a melanistic variety of leopard (Panthera Pardus) has also been reported from this region (Unpublished record). A group of Hanuman Langur (Semnopitheaus entellus) was observed near to the Hankon Village.
The different types of vegetation covered during the study include Coastal interior vegetation belt, tropical moist deciduous forests, tropical semi evergreen forests, tropical evergreen forest, scrub land, grass land, wetlands, and wasteland and open fields. Now large areas of coastal forests have vanished with remnants of scrub lands. Little interior hills are covered with highly disturbed stunted deciduous forests revealing their massive exploitation for fuel wood, grazing and timber. Huge mangrove areas which had earlier covered the Kali estuary and backwaters up till Kadra or even further are now isolated in small patches except in some areas such as Kanasgeri, Asnoti and Hankon. Hankon has one of the finest and large mangrove vegetation with good population of large trees such as Avicinnia officinalis and Sonneratia ceseolaris reaching to a height of 15 m.
5.1 Vegetation
From the opportunistic study of vegetation from the area, one species of fern, 78 species of herbs belonging to 23 families, 26 species of shrubs belonging to 15 families, 11 species belonging to 8 families of climbers, and 67 species of tree from 33 families were recorded (tables 4,5,6,7 and 8). Table 4 lists shrubs, Table5 lists herbs, Table 6 lists trees, Table 7 lists climbers and Table 8 lists fern found during the sampling. Some of the rare and threatened plants from the study area are listed in Table 9.
Table 4 : Shrubs of Kali flood plains
Sr. no. |
Family |
Genus |
Species |
1 |
Acanthaceae |
Acanthus |
ilicifolius |
2 |
Acanthaceae |
Strobilanthus |
heyneanus |
3 |
Annonaceae |
Artabotrys |
zeylanica |
4 |
Apocynaceae |
Carissa |
carandas |
5 |
Apocynaceae |
Rauvolfia |
serpetina |
6 |
Asteraceae |
Eupatorium |
odoratum |
7 |
Campanulaceae |
Lobelia |
nicotianifolia |
8 |
Euphorbiaceae |
Breynia |
retusa |
9 |
Euphorbiceae |
Bridelia |
scandens |
10 |
Faboideae |
Desmodium |
laxiflorum |
11 |
Faboideae |
Tephrosia |
pulcherrima |
12 |
Flacourtiaceae |
Flacourtia |
indica |
13 |
Moraceae |
Ficus |
tinctoria |
14 |
Myrsinaceae |
Aegiceras |
corniculatum |
15 |
Myrsinaceae |
Embelia |
ribes |
16 |
Papilionaceae |
Crotalaria |
retusa |
17 |
Papilionaceae |
Crotalaria |
lutescens |
18 |
Papilionaceae |
Crotalaria |
lutescens |
19 |
Rhamnaceae |
Ziziphus |
oenoplia |
20 |
Rubiaceae |
Canthium |
parviflorum |
21 |
Rubiaceae |
Ixora |
coccinea |
22 |
Rubiaceae |
Ixora |
coccinea |
23 |
Tiliaceae |
Grewia |
microcos |
24 |
Tiliaceae |
Triumfetta |
rhomboidea |
25 |
Verbenaceae |
Clerodendrum |
inerme |
26 |
Verbenaceae |
Clerodendrum |
paniculatum |
Table 5 : Herbs of Kali flood plains
Sr. No. |
Family |
Genus |
Species |
1 |
Acanthaceae |
Justica |
simplex |
2 |
Alismataceae |
Weisneria |
triandra |
3 |
Araceae |
Theriophonum |
dalzellii |
4 |
Asteraceae |
Epaltes |
divaricata |
5 |
Asteraceae |
Spaeranthus |
indicus |
6 |
Asteraceae |
Tricholepis |
glaberrima |
7 |
Asteraceae |
Vernonia |
divergens |
8 |
Caesalpinieae |
Cassia |
tora |
9 |
Campanulaceae |
Lobelia |
alsinoides |
10 |
Cyperaceae |
Fimbristylis |
ferruginea |
11 |
Cyperaceae |
Rhynchospora |
wightiana |
12 |
Cyperaceae |
Rhynchospora |
wightiana |
13 |
Cyperaceae |
Cyperus |
iria |
14 |
Cyperaceae |
Cyperus |
compressus |
15 |
Cyperaceae |
Cyperus |
malaccensis |
16 |
Cyperaceae |
Cyperus |
halpan |
17 |
Cyperaceae |
Cyperus |
difformis |
18 |
Cyperaceae |
Eleocharis |
acutangula |
19 |
Cyperaceae |
Fimbristylis |
bisumbellata |
20 |
Cyperaceae |
Fimbristylis |
tetragona |
21 |
Cyperaceae |
Fimbristylis |
dichotoma |
22 |
Cyperaceae |
Fuirena |
ciliaris |
23 |
Cyperaceae |
Kyllinga |
melanosperma |
24 |
Cyperaceae |
Mariscus |
javanicus |
25 |
Cyperaceae |
Pycreus |
stramineus |
26 |
Cyperaceae |
Pycreus |
pumilus |
27 |
Cyperaceae |
Pycreus |
sanguinolentus |
28 |
Cyperaceae |
Pycreus |
polystachyos |
29 |
Cyperaceae |
Schoenoplectus |
lateriflorus |
30 |
Euphorbiaceae |
Phyllanthus |
urinaria |
31 |
Euphorbiaceae |
Phyllanthus |
simplex |
32 |
Euphorbiaceae |
Euphorbia |
notoptera |
33 |
Euphorbiaceae |
Phyllanthus |
urinaria |
34 |
Euphorbiaceae |
Phyllanthus |
emblica |
35 |
Fabiodeae |
Smithia |
hirsuta |
36 |
Faboideae |
Alysicarpus |
vaginalis |
37 |
Faboideae |
Desmodium |
triflorum |
38 |
Faboideae |
Mimosa |
pudica |
39 |
Faboideae |
Zornia |
gibbosa |
40 |
Gentianaceae |
Canscora |
decurrens |
41 |
Gentianaceae |
Hoppea |
dichotoma |
42 |
Hydrocharitaceae |
Blyxa |
aubertii |
43 |
Lamiaceae |
Leucas |
lavandulifolia |
44 |
Lamiaceae |
Ocimum |
canum |
45 |
Lentibulariaceae |
Utricularia |
reticulata |
46 |
Malvaceae |
Sida |
acuta |
47 |
Malvaceae |
Urena |
lobata |
48 |
Nymphaceae |
Nymphaea |
nouchali |
49 |
Nymphaceae |
Nymphaea |
nouchali |
50 |
Onagraceae |
Ludwigia |
perennis |
51 |
Orchidaceae |
Rhynchostylis |
retusa |
52 |
Papilionaceae |
Geissaspis |
cristata |
53 |
Papilionaceae |
Crotalaria |
filipes |
54 |
Papilionaceae |
Geissaspis |
cristata |
55 |
Poaceae |
Arundinella |
metzii |
56 |
Poaceae |
Dactyloctenium |
aegyptium |
57 |
Poaceae |
Dimeria |
ornithopoda |
58 |
Poaceae |
Eragrostis |
uniloides |
59 |
Poaceae |
Ischaemum |
indicum |
60 |
Poaceae |
Oplismenus |
burmanii |
61 |
Poaceae |
Paspalum |
scrobiculatum |
62 |
Poaceae |
Porteresia |
coarctata |
63 |
Poaceae |
Pseudanthistiria |
umbellata |
64 |
Poaceae |
Zoysia |
matrella |
65 |
Poaceae |
Dimeria |
hohenackeri |
66 |
Poaceae |
Glyphochloa |
acuminata var. acuminata |
67 |
Poaceae |
Isacne |
globosa |
68 |
Poaceae |
Sporobolus |
virginicus |
69 |
Portulacaceae |
Portulaca |
oleracea |
70 |
Rubiaceae |
Hedyotis |
herbacea |
71 |
Rubiaceae |
Spermacoce |
articularis |
72 |
Rubiaceae |
Spermacoce |
verticillata |
73 |
Scrophulariaceae |
Bacopa |
monnieri |
74 |
Scrophulariaceae |
Centranthera |
indica |
75 |
Scrophulariaceae |
Lindernia |
tenuifolia |
76 |
Scrophulariaceae |
Lindernia |
crustacea |
77 |
Scrophulariaceae |
Striga |
lutea |
78 |
Sphenocleaceae |
Sphenoclea |
Zeylanica |
Table 6 : Tree species of Kali flood plains
Sr. No. |
Family |
Genus |
Species |
1 |
Anacardiaceae |
Buchanania |
lanzan |
2 |
Anacardiaceae |
Lannea |
coromandelica |
3 |
Anacardiaceae |
Holigarna |
arnotiana |
4 |
Anacardiaceae |
Mangifera |
indica |
5 |
Annonaceae |
Polyalthia |
fragrans |
6 |
Apocynaceae |
Alstonia |
scholaris |
7 |
Apocynaceae |
Holarrhena |
antidysenterica |
8 |
Arecaceae |
Caryota |
urens |
9 |
Bignoniaceae |
Dolichondrone |
spathaceae |
10 |
Bombacaceae |
Bombax |
ceiba |
11 |
Boraginaceae |
Cordia |
myxa |
12 |
Clusiaceae |
Calophyllum |
inophyllum |
13 |
Clusiaceae |
Garcinia |
indica |
14 |
Clusiaceae |
Mammea |
suriga |
15 |
Combretaceae |
Terminalia |
bellirica |
16 |
Combretaceae |
Terminalia |
alata |
17 |
Combretaceae |
Terminalia |
paniculata |
18 |
Dillleniaceae |
Dillenia |
pentagyna |
19 |
Dipterocarpaceae |
Hopea |
ponga |
20 |
Ebenaceae |
Diospyros |
montana |
21 |
Elaeocarpaceae |
Elaeocarpus |
serratus |
22 |
Euphorbiaceae |
Excoecaria |
agallocha |
23 |
Euphorbiaceae |
Sapium |
insigne |
24 |
Euphorbiaceae |
Trewia |
nudiflora |
25 |
Euphorbiaceae |
Aporosa |
lindleyana |
26 |
Euphorbiaceae |
Bridelia |
crenulata |
27 |
Euphorbiaceae |
Macaranga |
peltata |
28 |
Euphorbiaceae |
Mallotus |
philippensis |
29 |
Faboideae |
Pongamia |
pinnata |
30 |
Faboideae |
Cassia |
fistula |
31 |
Faboideae |
Xylia |
xylocarpa |
32 |
Flacourtiaceae |
Flacourtia |
montana |
33 |
Flacourtiaceae |
Casearia |
rubescens |
34 |
Flacourtiaceae |
Hydnocarpus |
laurifolia |
35 |
Icacinaceae |
Nothapodytes |
foetida |
36 |
Lauraceae |
Litsea |
laevigata |
37 |
Lecythidaceae |
Barringtonia |
acutangula |
38 |
Lecythidaceae |
Careya |
arborea |
39 |
Leeaceae |
Leea |
indica |
40 |
Loganiaceae |
Strychnos |
nux-vomica |
41 |
Lythraceae |
Lagerstroemia |
microcarapa |
42 |
Melastomataceae |
Memecylon |
talbotianum |
43 |
Moraceae |
Ficus |
hisda |
44 |
Moraceae |
Ficus |
drupacea |
45 |
Moraceae |
Artocarpus |
heterophyllus |
46 |
Moraceae |
Artocarpus |
hirsuta |
47 |
Moraceae |
Ficus |
arnottiana |
48 |
Moraceae |
Streblus |
asper |
49 |
Myristicaceae |
Myristica |
malabarica |
50 |
Myrtaceae |
Avicinnia |
officinalis |
51 |
Myrtaceae |
Syzygium |
cumini |
52 |
Myrtaceae |
Syzygium |
caryophyllatum |
53 |
Oleaceae |
Olea |
dioica |
54 |
Rhizophoraceae |
Kandelia |
candel |
55 |
Rhizophoraceae |
Rhizophora |
mucronata |
56 |
Rhizophoraceae |
Rhizophora |
apiculata |
57 |
Rhizophoraceae |
Carallia |
brachiata |
58 |
Rubiaceae |
Randia |
dumetorum |
59 |
Rubiaceae |
Ixora |
arborea |
60 |
Rubiaceae |
Ixora |
brachiata |
61 |
Sapindaceae |
Sapindus |
laurifolia |
62 |
Sapindaceae |
Schleichera |
oleosa |
63 |
Sapotaceae |
Madhuca |
neriifolia |
64 |
Sapotaceae |
Mimusops |
elengi |
65 |
Sonneratiaceae |
Sonneratia |
caseolaris |
66 |
Tiliaceae |
Grewia |
tiliaefolia |
67 |
Verbenaceae |
Vitex |
altissima |
Table 7 : Climbers in Kali flood plains
Sr. No. |
Family |
Genus |
Speies |
1 |
Apocynaceae |
Ichnocarpus |
frutescens |
2 |
Aristolochiaceae |
Aristalochia |
indica |
3 |
Asclepiadaceae |
Gymnema |
sylvestre |
4 |
Asclepiadaceae |
Hemidesmus |
indicus |
5 |
Caesalpiniaceae |
Moullava |
spicata |
6 |
Faboideae |
Derris |
scandens |
7 |
Faboideae |
Derris |
trifoliate |
8 |
Faboideae |
Dalbergia |
horrida |
9 |
Liliaceae |
Gloriosa |
superba |
10 |
Piperaceae |
Piper |
nigrum |
11 |
Smilacaceae |
Smilax |
zeylanica |
Table 8 : Ferns of Kali flood plains
Sr. No |
Family |
Genus |
Species |
1 |
Pteridophytes |
Acrosticum |
aureum |
Table 9 : Some of the rare and threatened plants: (R-Rare, TH- Threatened, R-Rare, VU- Vulnerable, EN-Endangered (Red data list, FRLHT priority list)
Species |
Status |
Buchania lanzan |
R |
Clitoria ternatea |
TH |
Curculigo orchioides |
VU |
Embelia ribes |
R |
Garcinia indica |
VU |
Gloriosa superba |
R |
Gymnema sylvestre |
VU |
Myristica malabarica |
EN |
Nothopodytes nimmoniana |
VU |
Piper nigrum |
VU |
Rauvolfia serpentina |
EN |
Nearly 45 endemic to Western Ghats and 73 endemic plants to both Western Ghats and Sri Lanka were recorded from the study area. Plants such as Aristalochia indica (Figure 8), Arundinella metzii, Canthium parviflorum, Smithia hirsuta, Flacourtia Montana, Geissaspis cristata, Crotalaria lutescens. Rhynchospora wightiana, Trees such as Artocarpus heterophyllus, Artocarpus hirsute, Caryota urens, Garcinia indica, Holigarna arnotiana, Hopea ponga, Hydnocarpus laurifolia, Ixora brachiata, Lagerstroemia microcarapa, Litsea laevigata, Mammea suriga, Mangifera indica, Memecylon talbotianum, Myristica malabarica, Polyalthia fragrans etc., are endemic to Western Ghats. Many of the plants such as Hemidesmus indicus, Cassia fistula, Pongamia pinnata, Nothopodytes nimmoniana, Embelia ribes, Rauvolfia serpentina etc., are medicinal plants.
Figure 8: Aristalochia indica-Important medicinal plant (Photo:GRR)
5.2 Mangrove destruction
A large scale removal of mangroves in swampy area (74.18767° N, 14.88362° E) near Hankon jog was noticed. The area is a marshy land as can be seen and is well within 100 meters from the flow of river. The remote sensing image (Figure 9), toposheet (Figure 10) given below indicate the location and the scale of destruction. Authorities need to intervene immediately considering the ecological importance of mangroves (nesting site for fishes, flood prevention, protection from cyclones, tsunami, etc.). A recently chopped down tree of Avicinia of around 15 meter height (figure 11 and 12) were seen at the place. This activity is a violation of CRZ 1991 (amended in 2001) as the region falls within the prohibited activities. As per the Clause (d) of sub-rule (3) of Rule 5 of the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986, rules 5(3)(d) of the environment (protection) rules, 1986 and also CRZ 1991, the coastal stretches of seas, bays, estuaries, creeks, rivers and backwaters which are influenced by tidal action (in the landward side) up to 500 metres from the High Tide Line (HTL) and the land between the Low Tide Line (LTL) and the HTL are mandated as Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ). CRZ 1991 (amended in 2001) prohibits land reclamation, bunding or disturbing the natural course of sea water or dumping of ash or any wastes from thermal power stations.
Figure 9: Location of mangrove destruction (http:// earth.google.com)
Figure 10: Location where rampant destruction of mangroves is in progress
Figure 11: Mangrove destruction near the village Hankon (Photo GRR)
Figure 12 : A Mangrove tree (Avicinnia officinalis) being cut
5.3 Water Quality
The water quality of the streams in the Kali flood plain region is in pristine condition. Tables 10 and 11 provide the water quality values for the monthly samples collected from two different locations in the basin. The Salinity level decreases gradually from the downstream to upstream in these streams. In terms of organic pollution the stream water quality was found to be good for the whole stretch. The total dissolved solids increases during the November month; it may be attributed by the excess water discharged from the paddy field during the cultivation. The phosphate and nitrate levels are recorded in very meager level. The freshwater zone of these streams supports unique stream flora and fauna, among which most odonates are endemic to Western Ghats like Euphaea fraseri, Euphaea dispar. The existing water quality also supports lot of unique aquatic organisms ranging diatoms, aquatic insects, reptiles and birds.
Table 10: The water quality values for each month during the study period (2007) in Naithihole.
[All the values are in mg/L except pH, EC (µS/cm), T (°C)]
NAITHIHOLE |
February |
March |
April |
May |
June |
July |
August |
September |
Oct 07 |
Nov 07 |
Dec07 |
Jan 08 |
pH |
7.64 |
7.77 |
7.43 |
7.32 |
8.57 |
8.13 |
7.93 |
7.48 |
7.68 |
7.72 |
7.09 |
7.01 |
Water Temperature |
32.70 |
32.50 |
32.70 |
32.53 |
33.50 |
28.35 |
28.60 |
27.80 |
27.80 |
28.20 |
27.20 |
27.90 |
Conductivity |
102.87 |
101.67 |
102.87 |
662.00 |
459.00 |
89.30 |
91.70 |
105.20 |
157.00 |
688.00 |
113.80 |
131.20 |
Dissolved Solids |
71.93 |
71.10 |
71.93 |
461.67 |
358.00 |
126.75 |
132.40 |
150.60 |
227.00 |
984.00 |
165.40 |
189.50 |
Free |
7.63 |
12.32 |
9.97 |
3.52 |
7.04 |
4.11 |
3.52 |
3.52 |
7.04 |
7.04 |
5.28 |
5.28 |
Alkalinity |
36.00 |
48.00 |
47.20 |
44.00 |
44.53 |
26.67 |
26.00 |
32.00 |
24.00 |
140.00 |
32.00 |
28.00 |
Chlorides |
24.03 |
20.02 |
12.21 |
22.36 |
50.06 |
16.42 |
13.01 |
18.02 |
14.02 |
13.88 |
12.28 |
12.01 |
Total Hardness |
31.33 |
32.00 |
32.67 |
42.67 |
35.33 |
21.33 |
16.00 |
24.00 |
24.00 |
26.00 |
24.00 |
28.00 |
Calcium Hardness |
4.81 |
4.81 |
7.48 |
7.21 |
8.02 |
4.01 |
3.21 |
4.28 |
4.01 |
3.21 |
4.01 |
3.21 |
Magnesium |
6.47 |
6.63 |
6.15 |
8.65 |
6.67 |
4.23 |
3.12 |
4.81 |
4.88 |
5.56 |
4.88 |
6.05 |
Dissolved Oxygen |
6.19 |
6.68 |
4.38 |
6.87 |
8.11 |
8.11 |
7.71 |
7.30 |
6.90 |
5.73 |
8.11 |
7.30 |
Phosphate |
0.01 |
0.02 |
0.12 |
0.02 |
0.04 |
0.02 |
0.00 |
0.01 |
0.21 |
0.14 |
0.02 |
0.11 |
Sulphate |
4.18 |
3.81 |
5.39 |
3.74 |
3.61 |
1.76 |
27.45 |
10.57 |
18.77 |
31.06 |
25.50 |
2.55 |
Sodium |
7.39 |
8.72 |
9.33 |
14.80 |
18.33 |
14.93 |
10.49 |
7.82 |
7.43 |
11.30 |
4.58 |
7.49 |
Potassium |
0.28 |
0.59 |
2.17 |
4.20 |
5.19 |
0.50 |
0.80 |
0.29 |
0.39 |
1.30 |
0.41 |
0.21 |
Nitrate |
0.22 |
0.18 |
1.84 |
0.92 |
0.25 |
2.40 |
1.49 |
1.93 |
1.93 |
1.33 |
1.46 |
1.94 |
Table 11: The water quality values for each month during the study period (2007) in Sakthihalla. [All the values are in mg/L except pH, EC (µS/cm), T (°C)]
SAKATIHALLA |
February |
March - June |
July |
August |
September |
October |
November |
December |
January 2008 |
pH |
8.19 |
|
8.24 |
7.88 |
7.75 |
8.10 |
7.59 |
7.60 |
6.83 |
Water Temperature |
29.93 |
26.90 |
28.60 |
26.10 |
29.00 |
27.30 |
27.90 |
29.30 |
|
Conductivity |
249.33 |
50.70 |
91.70 |
112.60 |
109.90 |
623.00 |
108.20 |
98.20 |
|
Dissolved Solids |
124.00 |
74.00 |
132.70 |
155.30 |
157.30 |
893.00 |
153.00 |
140.50 |
|
Free Carbon -di oxide |
7.04 |
7.04 |
3.52 |
5.28 |
7.04 |
8.80 |
3.52 |
3.52 |
|
Alkalinity |
31.47 |
30.00 |
21.33 |
23.47 |
28.00 |
120.00 |
20.00 |
20.00 |
|
Chlorides |
17.49 |
14.35 |
10.14 |
14.02 |
16.42 |
11.82 |
12.41 |
16.02 |
|
Total Hardness |
20.00 |
16.00 |
16.00 |
20.00 |
16.00 |
20.00 |
20.00 |
20.00 |
|
Calcium Hardness |
3.21 |
4.81 |
2.94 |
3.21 |
3.21 |
3.21 |
4.01 |
6.41 |
|
Magnesium Hardness |
4.10 |
2.73 |
3.19 |
4.10 |
3.12 |
4.10 |
3.90 |
3.32 |
|
Dissolved Oxygen |
6.19 |
9.68 |
7.30 |
7.30 |
6.65 |
5.84 |
7.71 |
7.30 |
|
Phosphate |
0.03 |
0.00 |
0.01 |
0.00 |
0.28 |
0.12 |
0.02 |
0.11 |
|
Sulphate |
5.54 |
0.00 |
0.00 |
4.74 |
28.88 |
7.46 |
57.64 |
6.42 |
|
Sodium |
13.92 |
10.60 |
7.35 |
4.95 |
5.45 |
9.50 |
12.27 |
14.35 |
|
Potassium |
0.32 |
0.21 |
0.50 |
0.20 |
0.29 |
1.20 |
0.52 |
0.52 |
5.4 Amphibian diversity
In the present study, 20 species represented by seven families were recorded in the study area. Dicroglossidae represented highest number of species (7) followed by Microhylidae (3) and Rhacophoridae (3). Table 11 depicts the species diversity in the catchment with their Global Amphibian Assessment status (GAA). Similar studies in Bedthi (33 species), Aghanashini (28 species) and Sharavathi (45 species) show higher species diversity in this region, highlighting the need for appropriate management strategies to conserve these biodiversity rich ecosystems in central Western Ghats.
Among the 20 species recorded, nearly 45% of them are endemic to the Western Ghats. The place records the presence of once thought to be extinct species of frog (Philautus cf.leucorhinus) while one of the recorded species of frog belongs to vulnerable (Philautus tuberohumerus) and three belong to near threatened category (Ramanella montana, Clinotarsus curtipes, Sylvirana temporalis). It is interesting note that 13 species are least concerned, while only one vulnerable and three are near threatened. This could be due to prevailing dominant vegetation cover (dry-moist deciduous) providing suitable habitat for more common and generalist species. Figure 12 provides some of amphibians recorded from the area.
Table 12: Amphibian species recorded from Kali River Catchment.
Species |
Endemic to Western Ghats |
GAA |
Family: Bufonidae |
||
Duttaphrynus melanostictus |
|
LC |
Duttaphrynus stomaticus |
|
LC |
Family: Microhylidae |
||
Sub-family: Microhylinae |
||
Microhyla ornate |
|
LC |
Microhyla rubra |
|
LC |
Ramanella Montana |
+ |
NT |
Family: Ranixalidae |
||
Indirana beddomii |
+ |
LC |
Indirana semipalmatus |
+ |
LC |
Family: Dicroglossidae |
||
Sub-family: Dicroglossinae |
||
Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis |
|
LC |
Fejervarya sahyadris |
+ |
LC |
Fejervarya rufescens |
+ |
LC |
Fejervarya sp. |
|
|
Hoplobatrachus tigerinus |
|
LC |
Sphaerotheca breviceps |
|
LC |
Sphaerotheca leucorhynchus |
+ |
DD |
Family: Rhacophoridae |
||
Sub-family: Rhacophorinae |
||
Philautus cf.leucorhinus |
+ |
EX |
Philautus tuberohumerus |
+ |
VU |
Polypedates maculates |
|
LC |
Family: Nyctibatrachidae |
||
Nyctibatrachus cf. petraeus |
+ |
LC |
Family: Ranidae |
||
Clinotarsus curtipes |
|
NT |
Sylvirana temporalis |
|
NT |
Note : GAA – Global amphibian assessment, EX- Extinct, VU- Vulnerable, NT- Near threatened, LC- Least concerned, DD- Data deficient.
![]() |
![]() |
Castle rock wrinkled frog Nyctibatrachus petraeus | Cricket frog Fejervarya caprata |
![]() |
![]() |
Bull frog Hoplobatrachus tigerinus montana | Jerdon’s narrow mouthed frog Ramanella |
Figure 13 : Anurans recorded from the study area (Photo: KVG).
5.5 Avian Diversity
The survey recorded 50 birds belonging to 13 different orders and 31 different families (Table 13). Order Passeriformes dominated with 18 species followed by order Ciconiiformes and order Coraciiformes with each of them being represented by 6 species. One of the near threatened birds which is endemic to Western Ghats – the Malabar pied hornbill (Anthracoceros coronatus) was observed in the region. Indian peafowl (Pavo Cristatus) which belongs to the Scheduled I of protected animals according to the Wild life protection act 1972 was observed in the region.
Table 13: Birds of Kali river flood plains
Sr. No. |
Common Name |
Scientific Name |
Family |
Order: |
Accipitridae |
|
|
1 |
Crected Serpant Eagle |
Spilornis cheela |
Falconiformes |
|
|
|
|
Order: |
Anseriformes |
|
|
1 |
Lesser whistling duck |
Dendrocygna javanica |
Anatidae |
|
|
|
|
Order: |
Apodiformes |
|
|
1 |
House swift |
Apus nipalensis |
Apodidae |
|
|
|
|
Order: |
Charadriiformes |
|
|
1 |
Oriental Plover |
Charadrius veredus |
Charadriidae |
2 |
Red wattled Lapwing |
Vanellus indicus |
Charadriidae |
3 |
Indian river tern |
Sterna aurantia |
Laridae |
4 |
Wood sandpiper |
Tringa glareola |
Scolopacidae |
5 |
Curlew (Unidentified) |
|
Scolopacidae |
|
|
|
|
Order: |
Ciconiiformes |
|
|
1 |
Cattle egret |
Bubulcus ibis |
Ardeidae |
2 |
Great egret |
Casmerodius albus |
Ardeidae |
3 |
Grey Heron |
Ardea cinerea |
Ardeidae |
4 |
Indian pond heron |
Ardeola grayii |
Ardeidae |
5 |
Little egret |
Egretta garzetta |
Ardeidae |
6 |
Malaysian Night Heron |
Gorsachius melanolophus |
Ardeidae |
|
|
|
|
Order: |
Columbiformes |
|
|
1 |
Rock pigeon |
Columba livia |
Columbidae |
2 |
Spotted dove |
Streptopelia chinensis |
Columbidae |
|
|
|
|
Order: |
Coraciiformes |
|
|
1 |
Pied Kingfisher |
Ceryle rudis |
Alcedinidae |
2 |
White-breasted kingfisher |
Halcyon smyrnensis |
Alcedinidae |
3 |
Malabar pied Hornbill *** |
Anthracoceros coronatus |
Bucerotidae |
4 |
Blue tailed Bee-eater ** |
Merops philippinus |
Meropidae |
5 |
Chestnut-headed Bee-eater |
Merops leschenaulti |
Meropidae |
6 |
Green bee-eater |
Merops Orientalis |
Meropidae |
|
|
|
|
Order: |
Cuculiformes |
|
|
1 |
Asian koel |
Eudynamys scolopaceus |
Cuculidae |
2 |
Greater Coucal |
Centropus sinensis |
Cuculidae |
|
|
|
|
Order: |
Falconiformes |
|
|
1 |
Black kite |
Milvus migrans |
Accipitridae |
2 |
Brahminy Kite |
Haliastur indus |
Accipitridae |
3 |
Eurasian marsh Harrier |
Circus aeruginosus |
Accipitridae |
|
|
|
|
Order |
Gruiformes |
|
|
1 |
White Breasted Water hen |
Amaurornis phoenicurus |
Rallidae |
|
|
|
|
Order: |
Passeriformes |
|
|
1 |
Common Iora |
Aegithina tiphia |
Aegithinidae |
2 |
Ashy prinia |
Prinia Socialis |
Cisticolidae |
3 |
House Crow |
Corvus splendens |
Corvidae |
4 |
Jungle Crow |
Corvus levaillantii |
Corvidae |
5 |
Black Drongo |
Dicrurus macrocercus |
Dicruridae |
6 |
White-rumped Munia |
Lonchura striata |
Estrildidae |
7 |
Common Swallow ( unidentified) |
Hirundinidae |
|
8 |
Long tailed Shrike |
Lanius schach |
Laniidae |
9 |
Pipit |
|
Motacillidae |
10 |
Oriental Magpie-Robin |
Copsychus saularis |
Muscicapidae |
11 |
Pied bushchat |
Saxicola caprata |
Muscicapidae |
12 |
Puple rumped Sunbird |
Nectarinia zeylonica |
Nectariniidae |
13 |
Eurasian Golden Oriole |
Oriolus oriolus |
Oriolidae |
14 |
Red vented Bulbul |
Pycnonotus cafer |
Pycnonotidae |
15 |
Common Myna |
Acridotheres tristis |
Sturnidae |
16 |
Rosy Starling |
Sturnus roseus |
Sturnidae |
17 |
Reed Warbler ( Un id.) |
|
|
18 |
Wagtail ( unidentified) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Order: |
Pelecaniformes |
|
|
1 |
Indian cormorant |
Phalacrocorax fuscicollis |
Phalacrocoracidae |
2 |
Little Cormorant |
Phalacrocorax niger |
Phalacrocoracidae |
|
|
|
|
Order: |
Psittaciformes |
|
|
1 |
Plum headed parakeet |
Psittacula cyanocephala |
Psittacidae |
2 |
Rose ringed Parakeet |
Psittacula krameri |
Psittacidae |
* Birds of Indian Subcontinent. Richard Grimmit, Carol Inskipp, Tom Inskipp, Oxfprd University Press, 2001., **- Data not available , ***- Near Threatened , # International Union for Conservation of Nature-Red Data List - http://www.iucnredlist.org/
Review of literature shows that a thorough survey of bird diversity of Uttar Kannada has been done earlier by Sir Davidson (from 1890- 1895), Koelz from (1983) and Daniels (1983-1988). Biogeographically Uttar Kannada belongs to the southern Malabar of Malabar province of Oriental region. A total of 419 bird species have been recorded by Daniels et al (1990) including the contribution of Campbell, Davidson, Koelz, skin collection at BNHS and amateur bird watchers. The avifauna of Uttar Kannada represents 70 families under 18 orders. 25% of the bird taxa of the district are water birds, of which a little more are winter visitors. The major sources of water that these birds utilize are the sea, estuaries, backwaters, and the associated salt water marshes, salt pans, larger irrigation reservoirs and seasonal, vegetation covered ponds and tanks. The district also records the presence of the endangered and endemic bird from Malabar- Nilgiri wood piegeon (Columba elphinstonii) (Vulnerable C2a (ii) - IUCN). Daniels (1989) records the presence of Sandwich tern (Sterna sandvicensis) at Karwar which is an exceptional record from this part of country. He has also reported 133 water birds from Uttar Kannada (including the records of Davidson) belonging to 20 different families which inhabit estuaries, marsh land, rivers or lakes/ponds (Table 14). The lower basin of Kali River covers all these habitats suitable for these bird species.
Table 14: Water birds in the study area (Daniels, 1989)
Sr.no. |
Common Name |
Scientific Name |
Family |
Ardeidae |
|
1 |
Grey Heron |
Ardea cinerea |
2 |
Purple Heron |
Ardea purpurea |
3 |
Little Green Heron |
Butorides striatus |
|
Pond Heron |
Ardeola grayii |
4 |
Cattle Egret |
Bulbulcus ibis |
5 |
Large Egret |
Ardea alba |
6 |
Small Egret |
Egretta intermediata |
7 |
Little Egret |
Egretta garzetta |
8 |
Indian Reef Heron |
Egretta gularis |
9 |
Night Heron |
Nycticorax nycticorax |
10 |
Tiger Bittern |
Gorsachius melanolophus |
11 |
Chestnut Bittern |
Ixobrychus cinnamomeus |
12 |
Black Bittern |
Ixobrychus flavicollis |
13 |
Bittern |
Botaurus stellaris |
Family |
Ciconidae |
|
14 |
Painted Stork |
Mycteria leucocephalus |
15 |
Openbill Stork |
Anastomus oscitans |
16 |
Whitenecked Stork |
Ciconia episcopus |
17 |
Black Stork |
Ciconia nigra |
18 |
Lesser adjuvant stork |
Leptoptilos javanicus |
Family |
Threskiornithidae |
|
19 |
White Ibis |
Threskiornis melanocephala |
20 |
Black Ibis |
Pseudibis papilosa |
21 |
Glossy Ibis |
Plegadis falcinnellus |
22 |
Spoon Bill |
Platalea leucorodia |
Family |
Anatidae |
|
23 |
Lesser whistling teal |
Dendrocygna javanica |
24 |
Brahminy teal |
Tadorna ferruginea |
25 |
Pintail |
Anus acuta |
26 |
Common teal |
Anas creca |
27 |
Spotbilled duck |
Anas poecilorhynca |
28 |
Gadwall |
Anas Strepera |
29 |
Wigeon |
Anas penelope |
30 |
Bluewinged teal |
Anas querquedula |
31 |
Shoveller |
Ans clypeata |
32 |
White eyed pochard |
Aythya nyroca |
33 |
Cotton teal |
Nattapus coromandelicus |
34 |
Nakta / Comb duck |
Sarkidiornis melanotos |
Family |
Phoenicopteridae |
|
35 |
Flamingo |
Phoenicopterus roseus |
Family |
Gruidae |
|
36 |
Demoiselle crane |
Anthropoides virgo |
Family |
Rallidae |
|
37 |
Blue breasted banded rail |
Rallus striatus |
38 |
Indian banded crake |
Rallina eurizonoides |
39 |
Little crake |
Porzona parva |
40 |
Baillon's crake |
Porzona pusilla |
41 |
Ruddy crake |
Amaurornis fusca |
42 |
Whitebreasted waterhen |
Amaurornis phoenicurus |
43 |
Water cock |
Gallicrex cinerea |
44 |
Indian moorhen |
Gallinula chloropus |
45 |
Purple moorhen |
Porphyrio porphyrio |
46 |
Coot |
Fulica atra |
Family |
Otididae |
|
47 |
Lesser florican |
sypheotides indicus |
Family |
Jacanidae |
|
48 |
Pheasant-tailed jacana |
Hydrophasianus chirurgus |
49 |
Bronzedwinged jacana |
Metopidius indicus |
Family |
Haematopodidae |
|
50 |
Oystercatcher |
Haematopus ostralegus |
Family |
Charadriidae |
|
51 |
Greyheaded lapwing |
Vanellus cinereus |
52 |
Redwattled lapwing |
Venellus indicus |
53 |
Yellow Wattled lapwing |
Vanellus malabaricus |
54 |
Grey plover |
Pluvialis squatarola |
55 |
Golden plover |
Pluvialis dominica |
56 |
Large Sandplover |
Charadrius leschenaultii |
57 |
Europen little ringed plover |
Charadrius dubius |
58 |
Litlle ringed plover |
Charadrius d. jerdoni |
59 |
Kentish plover |
Charadrius alexandrinus |
60 |
Pamirs lesser sandplover |
Charadrius mongolus |
Family |
Scolopacidae |
|
61 |
Whimbrel |
Numenius phaeopus |
62 |
Eastern curlew |
Numenius arquata |
63 |
Blacktailed godwit |
Limosa Limosa |
64 |
Spotted redshank |
Tringa erythropus |
65 |
Common redshank |
Tringa totanus |
66 |
Marsh sandpiper |
Tringa stagnatilis |
67 |
Greenshank |
Tringa nebularia |
68 |
Green Sandpiper |
Tringa ochropus |
69 |
Spotted sandpiper |
Tringa glareola |
70 |
Terek Sandpiper |
Tringa terek |
71 |
Common Sandpiper |
Tringa hypoleucos |
72 |
Turnstone |
Arenaria interpres |
73 |
Pintal snipe |
Gallinago stenura |
74 |
Fantail /common snipe |
Gallinago gallinago |
75 |
Jack Spine |
Gallinago minima |
76 |
Little stint |
Calidris minuta |
77 |
Temminck's stint |
Calidris temnickii |
78 |
Dunlin |
Calidris alpina |
79 |
Curlew sandpiper |
Calidris testacea |
80 |
Broadbilled sandpiper |
Limicola falcinellus |
81 |
Ruff |
Philomachus pugnax |
Family |
Rostratulidae |
|
82 |
Greater Painted Snipe |
Rostratula benghalensis |
Family |
Recurvirostridae |
|
83 |
Indian blackwinged stilt |
Himantopus himantopus |
84 |
Avocet |
Recurvirostra avosetta |
Family |
Burnhinidae |
|
85 |
Indian Stone curlew |
Burhinus oedicnemus |
86 |
Great stone plover |
Esacus magniristris |
Family |
Glareolidae |
|
87 |
Indian curser |
Cursorius coromandelicus |
88 |
Small indian pratincole |
Glareola lactea |
Family |
Laridae |
|
89 |
Great blackheaded gull |
Larus icthyaetus |
90 |
Brownheaded gull |
Larus brunnicephalus |
91 |
blackheaded gull |
Larus ridibundus |
92 |
Slenderbilled gull |
Larus genei |
93 |
Indian Whiskered tern |
Chliodinas hybridus |
94 |
Gull billed tern |
Gelochelidon nilotica |
95 |
Caspian tern |
Hydroprogne caspia |
96 |
River tern |
Sterna aurantia |
97 |
Blackbellied tern |
Sterna acuricauda |
98 |
Brownwinged tern |
Sterna anaethetus |
99 |
Sooty tern |
Sterna fuscuta |
100 |
Large crested tern |
Sterna bergii |
101 |
Indian lesser crested tern |
Sterna bengalensis |
102 |
Sandwich tern |
Sterna Sandvicensis |
103 |
Indian Skimmer |
Rhynchops albicollis |
Family |
Alcedinidae |
|
104 |
Indian Pied Kingfisher |
Ceryle rudis |
105 |
Small blue Kingfisher |
Alcedo athis |
106 |
blue eared kingfisher |
Alcedo meninting |
107 |
Three toed forest kingfisher |
Ceyx erithacus |
108 |
Brownheaded storkbilled kigfisher |
pelargopsis capensis |
109 |
Black capped kigfisher |
Halcyon pileata |
110 |
Malabar whitecollared kingfisher |
Halycon Chloris |
Famliy |
Phalacrocoracidae |
|
111 |
Indian Shag |
Phalacrocorax fuscicollis |
112 |
Little cormorant |
Phalacrocorax niger |
113 |
Darter |
Anhinga rufa |
5.6 Landscape based conservation :
Daniels (1991,1994) have emphasized on the landscape based conservation of bird diversity in the Uttar Kannada district. The study done by Devdar et al. (2001) also highlights the need of conserving key stone habitats which maintain regional biodiversity on a priority basis for the conservation of species and management of the tropical biodiversity. As the demand for land is ever increasing conservation of large areas becomes difficult. However small patches for land representing different kinds of habitat (given the name as nodes) can be preserved to facilitate conservation of maximum bird taxa. The condition being that each node must differ significantly from other with respect to habitat type and must represent large number of bird taxa. Based on his study Daniels (1994) suggested 14 localities which can be maintained as nodes for conserving almost 80 % of the bird taxa. They are as follows-
Doddukere (L), Gundoli (L), Supa (L), Patololi (C) Kolikeri (X), Salgaum-Chigalli (L), Suremane (C) , Bharatnalli (L), Karwar (P), Saniketa-Madanagiri (R), Saniketta (R), Kumta (Z), Bidralli (C) and Madurahalli-Coodnapur (L).
[Note: the letter in parenthesis denote the habitat type of the region: C- Ever-green, L-Freshwater marsh, P- beach, R- Estuary, X- Moist deciduous forest, Z- Urban}.
The minimum area of each node is suggested to be 25 sq km for effective conservation of the habitat. Karwar showing the maximum number of water birds is the place suggested as the node for their effective conservation. Figure 14 shows the 14 nodal points identified for bird conservation .in the district (Daniels, 1994)
Figure 14 : Uttar Kannada District showing the 14 nodal points for conserving maximum bird diversity of the district. The circle highlights the area with maximum bird diversity.
The six major dams across the river, a nuclear power plant and the paper and sugar industries on its bank have already caused tremendous loss to the biodiversity of the region. Any further development be it a hydro electricity project, any thermal power plant in this river basin is likely to cause a lot of damage to the left over biodiversity as well as it will harm the fish production capacity of the region.
The Uttar Kannada district with 144 km of Coast line has around 5 fishing harbors and 16- fishing centre which are famous for catching Mackerels, Sardines, Prawns and other fishes having high demand in the international market thus creating revenue for the state. The average fish catching in the district is 47800 km with inland fishing contributing an additional of 79%. Shrimp culture is also very famous activity in the coastal area. River Kali basin contributes in a major way to this fish harvest. Deterioration of in physical, chemical or biological way will certainly hamper the fish production of the place and will thus affect the lively hood of the people dependent on it.
Major projects like thermal power projects should not be implemented in the region as it would affect the forests, which in turn affect the water yield in river catchment and biodiversity of terrestrial, rivers and coastal ecosystems
The power plants, particularly those fueled by fossil or nuclear fuels, can have the most profound and wide ranging negative impacts on water quality. According to a study by Pace University, New York (2000), the following procedures occur during routine operations and maintenance of power plants and each can significantly impact water quality:
Impact of acid rain on vegetation: The forest soils are mostly acidic in reaction, as is characteristic of heavy rainfall tropics. The impact of release of particularly SO2 and NOX, during the rainy season, could be defoliation and forest death apart from the impact of increased acidity on soil biota, and also on crop plants.
Increased air temperature : Release of waste heat into the atmosphere is common feature of all thermal power plants. This matter is much relevant in Uttara Kannada where there are just four months of heavy rainfall and two months of light rains. The evergreen-semi-evergreen forests use the water stored in the soil for the rest of the year, and almost behave like a rain forest. In fact these forests are very sensitive to any temperature increase, as desiccation could set in and chances increase of devastating forest fires.
Flyash pollution : Flyash is the major particulate matter released into the air from coal based power plants. The surge in energy demand in south Asia, characterized by the region's dependence on coal (particularly in India), has manifest itself in major increases in airborne pollution. Urban air quality has deteriorated largely on account of growth in industrial activity, transportation needs, and energy production. Fly ash, combined with emissions from the increased use of coal, has emerged as a major environmental concern. It is also estimated that about 30-40 million tons of fly ash, (100 million according to some other studies) is generated by thermal power plants each year in India, of which a mere 2%-3% is recycled. In 1990, areas with acid loads in excess of the critical levels were in parts of northern India and Bangladesh. Recent evidence from atmospheric studies of the Indian Ocean shows high concentrations of small particles, known as aerosols, consisting primarily of soot, sulfates, nitrates, organic particles, fly ash, and mineral dust suspended over a very large area of the northern Indian Ocean, including the Arabian Sea and much of the Bay of Bengal. The studies indicate that the long-term impact of air pollution on climate through radical changes in the hydrological cycle will be widely felt throughout the region (Chatterjee et al., 2000).
Flyash impact on leaf chemistry : A study conducted on the impact of flyash generated from Shaktinagar (UP) Thermal Power Plant on leaf chemistry of Ipomea cornes, Cassia tora and Acacia nilotica, naturally growing on flyash dyke, shows that flyash severely affects the plants by changing the chemical and biochemical compositions. Protein, carbohydrates, chlorophyll and ascorbic acid decrease significantly with a significant increase of phenols (Banerjee et al., 2003). Coarse particles of fly ash affects the composition of mangrove soils and mudflats, which are indeed centres of biological productivity.
Disturbances on the mangroves : Mangroves are rated among the top ecosystems of the world in terms of productivity, ranking at par with coral reefs. Humans do not make any inputs into the mangrove ecosystem, but make heavy harvests of fish, shellfish, prawns, oysters, crabs etc from it. The minerals of the sea and the silt-laden alluvial soils brought by the rivers mingle in the mangrove swamp and make it very fertile. Constant churning of the shallow water by the tidal currents oxygenate the water, making it ideal for aquatic animals. Mangrove detritus itself forms the food for various benthic animals, which play important role in the food-web of the estuary and the coastal sea.
The key to the success of the mangroves seem to be the fine, soft and silty mud in which they grow. Mangroves grow on predominantly silty soils. A study in Taiwan shows that silt constitutes 54 to 72% of mangrove soils, and sand constitutes only less than 20% (Hseu & Chen, 1999). A greater mixture of sand or other coarse particles can alter mangrove soils and most mangroves disappear from sandy soils or from soils having rough elements in it. Mangroves grow in shallow and peaceful part of the estuaries. The mangrove soils are exposed during low tides. Therefore the key to the success of the mangroves and therefore the richness of the ecosystem lies in the nature of the soil.
Estuary mangroves in Uttara Kannada suffered in the recent times when permanent bunds were built to protect the gazni rice fields. These permanent bunds replaced the earlier earthen embankments, fortified alongside by planting of mangroves. The mangroves suffered heavily when they were totally eliminated from the very vicinity of shrimp farms. Intensive shrimp culturing began in the estuary in the late 1980’s.