ID: 52312
Title: Chironomidae
Author: Wang Shida and Wang Xinhua
Editor: John C Morse, Yang Liangang and Tian Lixin
Year: 1994
Publisher: Hohai University Press, 1994, 1st Edition
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Aquatic Insects of China useful for monitoring water quality
Keywords: Aquatic insects, holometabolous insects, imago, ecdysis, facutatively or obligatorily parthenogenetic,
Abstract: The familyl Chironomidae is an ecologically important group of aquatic insects often occurring in high densities and diversity. The relatively short life cycles and the large total biomass of the numerous larvae confer ecological energetic significance on this taxon (as consumers and prey) and the partitioning of ecological resources by a large number of species presumably enhances the biotic stability of aquatic ecosystems. From an economic standpoint, fish biologists know that chironomid larvae form an important item in the food of young and adult fishes, and that without this large group, many fishing lakes or ponds might be relatively barren.
Chironomid larvae are known to feed on a great variety of organic substrates: (1) coarse detrital particles (consumed by leaf- and wood-shredders); (2) medium detrial particles deposited in or on sediments (by gatherers and scrapers); (3) fine detriatal particles in suspension, in transport, or deposited (by collectors-filterers and gatheres, and by scrapers); (4) algae that are benthic, planktonic, or in transport (by scrapers, collectors-gatherers, and to a lesser extent collectors -filters); (5) vascular plants (miners); (6) fungal spores and hyphae (gatherers); (7) animals ( as simple predators, often preying on other chironomid larvae, or as parasites on a variety of taxa, although the latter may most often be commensal relationships).
The overall diversity of the family is also reflected in the rich chironomid faunas of many aquatic ecosystems. The number of chironomid species present in most systems often accounts for at least 50% of the total macroinvertebrates species diversity (species richness component). Natural lakes, ponds and streams usually have at least 50 and often more than 100 species. The actual number of species present in a system is the result of the complex of physical, chemical, biological, and biogeographic conditions. Obviously, the least diverse faunas are correlated with extreme conditions.
As holometabolous insects, chironomids have four distinct life stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult (imago). The larvae are elongated, cyclindrical, slender and range from 1.5 to 32 mm in length. Duration of the larval stage, with four instars, may last from about two weeks to several years, depending on the species and the environmental conditions. In general, warm water, high-quality food, and small species correlate with shorter life cycles. Average - sized chironomids (fourth instar about 5mm long) in temperate systems usually have from one to two generations per year. First larval instars may be planktonic, are often difficult to sample, and may have a unique morphology not treated in keys that are designed for fourth instar larvae. Later instars are usually benthic. Toward the end of the fourth instar, the larval thoracic region begins to swell with the formation of the pupal integument and adult tissues. The pupal stage begins with apolysis, the separation (not shedding) of the larval from the underlying pupal integument. After ecdysis, the pupa usually remains hidden in debris until it swims to the surface where eclosion (adult emergence) takes place. Technically, the adult stage begins with the pupal -adult apolysis, which occurs a short time before eclosion. Chironomid adults usually live a few days, though some species survive for several weeks. The adult stage performs the funtions of reproduction and dispersal. As a rule, chironomid adults do not need to feed, as reflected by the usual condition of reduced mouthparts and atrophied gut. However, many species (perhaps most) will take liquid and semi-fluid carbohydrate sources such as aphid honeydew and flower nectar. The consumption of these energy-rich substrates presumably maximizes the potential for the completion of additional ovarian cycles.
Mating takes place in aerial swarms, on the surface in skating swarms, or on solid substrates. Females may braodcast the eggs at the water surface or, more frequently, deposit gelatinous egg masses on the open water or on emergent vegetation. Egg or larval development may be arrested under unfavorable environmental conditions. Some species are facultatively or obligatorily parthenogenetic, and larvae parasitized by nematodes or nematomorphs may produce intersexual adults.
In most ecological studies, the larva is the life stage that is most frequently encountered. However, the quantitative collection of early instars is often difficult. Even when larval populations can be ' adequately ' samples, sorting, particularly retrieval of early instars can require prodigious amounts of time (densities of 50,000 larvae per m2 are not uncommon). Most generic and species -level taxa are easily separated in the pupal stage, even if a generic or species name cannot be assigned. Large numbers of specimens can usually be collected in a short time.
Because pupae emerge at the surface of the water, the pupal exuviae often ae left floating with the current; thus they can be collected from surface foam or with fine-meshed nets left distended in the current for a period of time. These exuviae exhibit many useful taxonomic characteristics. On occasion, the larval and pupal exuviae as well as the adult of a specimen are collected entangled with each other, providing ideal material for association. Studies for which the collection of pupal exuviae is well suited include diversity (richness and actual taxonomic composition of faunas), phenology (diel and annnual), biogeography, size distribution of species, sex ratios, and production of adults.
By the end of 1992, only 250 species fo Chironomidae (adult, larva, or both) were known in China.
Location: 241
Literature cited 1: None
Literature cited 2: None
ID: 52311
Title: Simuliidae
Author: Peter H Adler
Editor: John C Morse, Yang Liangang and Tian Lixin
Year: 1994
Publisher: Hohai University Press, 1994, 1st Edition
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Aquatic Insects of China useful for monitoring water quality
Keywords: Black flies, human onchocerciasis,pathogens, parasites, filarial nematode
Abstract: The immature stages of black flies are found in nearly every running-water habitat throughout the world. They are often extremely abundant and can play an important role in the diets of other aquatic organims such as fish. They are potentially valuable indicators of water quality because most speices cannot tolerate pollution.
The world fauna consists of over 1,500 described species, plus hundreds yet to be discovered and described. Over 110 species are known from China, of which about 95% are in the genus Simulium, the actual number of speices inhabiting the country is probably well over 300. Studies of Chinese black flies ae very much in an embryonic stage, with much work required on basic biology, taxonomy and economic importance.
Adult black flies are known primarily for the economic and public health problems that they create. Many species are severe biting and nuisance pests of humans, domestic animals, and wildlife. Because most female black flies require a blood meal for nourishment of their eggs, they can be important vectors of blood-borne diseases. For example, black flies transmit the filarial nematode that causes human onchocerciasis, a serious disease in parts of Africa, Central America, and South America. Numerous other blood-borne pathogens, such as protozoa and viruses, are transmitted by black flies to birds and mammals. Both male and female black flies also take nectar as a source of energy.
The life history of black flies is generally similar throughout the family, and includes four life stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult. However, the ecological relationships and individual biologies are unique for each species. Most species mate in aerial swarms, though a small percentage mate on the ground near the stream from which they emerged. Females acquire a meal of blood after mating and later deposit their eggs in running water. Some species, however, can produce eggs without obtaining blood. Eggs are usually dropped into the water while the female is in flight or they are placed in strings and masses on rocks and objects trailing in the water. Females produce from 25 to about 800 eggs during a single gonotrophic cycle, though most species average between 200 and 500 eggs. Hatching occurs within a few days to many months, usually depending upon the species and water temperature. Species that undergo a single generation per year generally pass the summer and part of the winter in the egg stage.
The larva escapes from the egg with the aid of an egg burster, a tiny sclerotized tooth on the dorsum of the head. Water temperature and nutritional quality significantly affect the subsequent developmental rate. Larvae typically undergo six to seven molts during a period lasting from a few weeks to several months. During this time, they remain fastened to objects in the water by means of a posterior circlet of tiny hooks embedded in a silken pad spun from their silk glands. With their bodies extended in the direction of the current, they use a pair of labral fans located on either side of the head to filter particulate matter from the water. These fans consist of numerous rays, each with microtrichia that trap food items, such as bacteria and diatoms, as well as inorganic matter. Larvae also scrape algae and adherent matter from the substrate to which they are attached and they engulf strands of algae and small aquatic animals, such as chironomid larvael. At dusk and during the night, larvae often release their hold on the substrate and drift downstream of silken strands before reattaching at another site.
In preparation for pupation, the larva spins a silken cocoon on some object in the current. Once the pupa has formed, it is held in the cocoon by a series of small hooks and spines. The adult emerges from the pupa after one to two weeks, rises to the water surface in a bubble of gas, and flies to a nearby dry surface to allow the cuticle to harden .
Natural enemies of black flies can exert significant population control. Pathogens and parasites of larvae include mermithid nematodes, microsporidian protozoans, fungi, and viruses. Predators, such as fish, birds, and carnivorous arthropods, sometimes consume large numbers of black flies.
Location: 241
Literature cited 1: None
Literature cited 2: None
ID: 52310
Title: Culicidae
Author: Lu Baolin
Editor: John C Morse, Yang Liangang and Tian Lixin
Year: 1994
Publisher: Hohai University Press, 1994, 1st Edition
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Aquatic Insects of China useful for monitoring water quality
Keywords: Mosquito, holometabolous insects, mouth brushes, Toxorhynchites, Lutzia, Mansonia, Anopheles, Culex, Aedes
Abstract: The family Culicidae include all true mosquitoes, which are easily recognized by the long proboscis projecting forward with palpi. They are holometabolous insects: such that eggs develop to adults through larval and pupal stages. Their immature stages are aquatic, while the adults are terrestrial.
Mosquitoes breed in various water bodies, including lake shores, marshes, paddy fields, ponds, pools, streams, ditches, river beds, rock caves, artificial and plant containers, etc. Their breeding places, different in different species, are selected by the ovipositing females, since the hatched larvae are unable to change their habitats after the eggs been laid. The eggs are either laid singly (e.g. Anopheles) or in rafts (e.g. Culex) on the water surface or singly in water or on moistened inner walls around the water line of containers (e.g.Aedes). Some aedine species may lay their eggs on wet mud and can survive a long period in a diapause state.
The larva hatches from the egg in wate after an incubation period from a few hours to weeks, varying with species and environmental conditions. The larvae of most species feed on small aquatic animals, algae and organic particles collected by action of mouth brushes. Some species scrape microorganisms attached to the surface of submerged substrates. The larvae of the genus Toxorhynchites and the subgenus Lutzia of the genus Culex are predaceous, often feed on other mosquito larvae. All mosquito larvae, except members of the genus Mansonia and a few species of the genus Mimomyia, must come to the water surface at frequent intervals to obtain atmospheric air. They usually are found suspended in various positions from the water surface. Air is obtained through a pair of spiracles located dorsally on the eighth abdominal segment in Anopheles, and at the end of the siphon in other genera. Mansonia and some Mimomyia larvae attach themselves to submerged stems and roots of aquatic vegetation and obtain oxygen by piercing into the plant tissues with modified siphons.
There are four instars in the larval stage. The fourth instar is the mature larva, which molts to produce the pupa. The larval periods also vary with species and environmental conditions, from a week to several months. The pupa is a nonfeedign, quiescent stage that usually floats on the water surface and dives with a tumbling jerking motion only when it is disturbed by mechanical agitation or sudden changes of light intensity. It breathes atmospheric air through a pair of respiratory trumpets. In the genus Mansonia, the pupal trumpets are modified for piercing into plant tissues of submerged vegetation to obtain oxygen. The adult usually emerges within a few days by splitting the pupal skin of the dorsum of the cephalothorax.
Many mosquito adults are well known to suck animal or human blood, or both. Some of them, such as Anopheles anthropophagus, Anopheles sinensis, Culex pipiens pallens, Culex tritaeniorhynchus, Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus, are important vectors of malaria, lymphatic filariasis, Japanese B encephalitis and /or dengue fever.
Location: 241
Literature cited 1: None
Literature cited 2: None
ID: 52309
Title: Tipulidae
Author: J K Gelhaus
Editor: John C Morse, Yang Liangang and Tian Lixin
Year: 1994
Publisher: Hohai University Press, 1994, 1st Edition
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Aquatic Insects of China useful for monitoring water quality
Keywords: Crane flies, leaf packs, pest, rice fields, Diptera, Pseudolimnophila, Pedicia, Hexatoma
Abstract: Tipulidae or crane flies, are the largest family of Diptera, including more than 14,000 known species. Since by far most of the species of China were described by Charles P. Alexander, we follow his concept of the family, its three subfamilies (Tipulinae, Cylindrotominae and Limoniinae) and the 66 genera recorded from China. Some European authorities on crane flies recognize three families, which correspond to the subfamilies just mentioned. Most species of Tipulidae are found in moist environments. The adult flies often occur in low plants beside streams or ponds. They are particularly abundant and diverse in forested places; however, there are a few species that occur in grasslands, cultivated fields and even in desert habitats.
Larvae of aquatic Tipulidae may be found in most shallow freshwater environments, such as ponds, streams, marshes and seasonally flooded forests and rice fields. Many species feed on organic debris, such as dead leaves and the associated microorganisms (described as ' leaf packs ' when many dead leaves are compressed together), in mud or sand or beneath rocks in these habitats. Others inhabit and feed on algae or mosses that grow where water flows slowly over rock cliffs or where water splashes on rocks near waterfalls. A few kinds may be found in tree-holes or in the littoral (intertidal) zone of the ocean shore. In freshwater environments, larvae of some genera (Pedicia, Hexatoma, etc) are predators, feeding on small insects including larvae of some other kinds of crane flies.
Terrestrial larvae of some Tipulinae may, when numerous, cause economic damage to forage crops or to seedling plants by feeding on the roots. Aquatic larvae of a few tipuline species occasionally are pests in rice fields. Most aquatic crane fly larvae are primarily of ecological importance, in the reduction of organic debris, including dead leaves and wood that fall into the water. Both adults and larvae are important in the diets of some other insects, as well as of fishes, birds, mammals, amphibians, reptiles and spiders.
The life cycle in Tipulidae consists of a short egg stage (from a few days to two weeks), four larval growth stages, a pupal stage of 5 to 12 days and a bried adult stage, usually of only 4 or 5 days. The duration of the life cycle is influenced by environmental conditions such as temperature, moisture and availability of suitable food. A species having two generations per year in central or southern China may have only one in northern China. Many aquatic species have single generation per year. In species with two generations per year (a common occurrence at temperate latitudes), one entire cycle may be completed in about three months, in summer, while the other lasts about nine months. Some small limoniine crane flies have more than two generations per year. In far northern China and in high mountains, the life cycle for some species may require two years (that is, two summer seasons for larval growth).
The larvae of only a few genera are truly aquatic in the sense of being able to obtain dissolved oxygen from the water surrounding them. These include Antocha species, which are apneustic (lack spiracles), and some species of Tipula in which spiracles are present but non-functional. Some other kinds of crane fly larvae can remain submerged for extended periods of time, apparently obtaining oxygen by means of elongated, membranous anal gills, as in Pseudolimnophila (Fig 19.67) or in the subgenus Yamatotipula of Tipula (Fig 19.28). But the anal gills are not well developed in several other genera, and cutaneous respiration may be possible, although this has not been adequately investigated. Many larvae living in shallow water obtain oxygen from the air by extending the spiracular disc to the surface and holding back the water by means of hairs that surround the disc. With rare exceptions (for example, Antocha), the pupae of crane flies also require access to the air; therefore, most aquatic larvae leave the water and pupate in the mud, dead leaves, mosses or soil along the shore.
Almost nothing is known about the immature forms of Chinese Tipulidae. For this reason, the following key and illustrations have been based largely upon North American or European species that belong to genera occurring in China. However, we hope that these aids to generic or subgeneric identification will prove useful for aquatic entomologists in China, extensive collection of Tipulidae-but of adults only-have been made only in Sichuan (202 species with aquatic larvae) and on Taiwan (161 aquatic species). From 65% of the provinces, only 5 or fewer aquatic species have been recorded. Several regional genera are unknown in the larval form. The biology and life-history of crane flies is a vast and only slightly explored field, greatly in need of interested students.
Location: 241
Literature cited 1: None
Literature cited 2: None
ID: 52308
Title: Diptera Families
Author: G.W.Courtney
Editor: John C Morse, Yang Liangang and Tian Lixin
Year: 1994
Publisher: Hohai University Press, 1994, 1st Edition
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Aquatic Insects of China useful for monitoring water quality
Keywords: Lotic habitats, lentic habitats, true flies, mosquitoes, black flies, midges
Abstract: Diptera or true flies are one of the most diverse insect orders, with almost 120,000 described species. The order contains many common and familiar insects, including several important aquatic groups such as mosquitoes, black flies, and midges. Diptera are diverse in not only number of species, but with respect to morphological and ecological characteristics. Although adult Diptera are essentially terrestrial, many species can be most abundant near aquatic habitats, and adult females of Simuliidae, Deuterophlebiidae and other families may crawl itno the water to lay eggs. Most dipteran larvae are aquatic in a broad sense, inhabiting damp or wet environments, e.g., decaying organic matter, damp soil, living plant and animal tissues, and many truly aqutic habitats. This chapter focus on groups found in the latter, primarily those from lotic (flowing-water) and lentic (standing-water) habitats.
Location: 241
Literature cited 1: None
Literature cited 2: None
ID: 52307
Title: Coleoptera
Author: Yang Chikun
Editor: John C Morse, Yang Liangang and Tian Lixin
Year: 1994
Publisher: Hohai University Press, 1994, 1st Edition
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Aquatic Insects of China useful for monitoring water quality
Keywords: Insects, largest order
Abstract: The Coleoptera are the largest order of insects and of the animal kingdom. Estimates of the number of described speices in the world vary between 277,000 and 350,000. It is a notable fact that, whereas about 70% of animals are insects, no less than 40% of insects and about one-third of all animal species are beetles. How many beetle species are aquatic? The number is usually estimated as 5,000.
Location: 241
Literature cited 1: None
Literature cited 2: None
ID: 52306
Title: Lepidoptera
Author: D.H.Habeck
Editor: John C Morse, Yang Liangang and Tian Lixin
Year: 1994
Publisher: Hohai University Press, 1994, 1st Edition
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Aquatic Insects of China useful for monitoring water quality
Keywords: Aquatic moths, Pyralidae, Nymphulinae, Acentropinae, Hydrocampinae, cocoon, larvae, pupae
Abstract: While many Lepidoptera are associated with aquatic and semiaquatic plants, there are only a few truly aquatic moths and no aquatic butterflies. Most moths that spend part of their life cylce in the water belong to the family Pyralidae, subfamily Nymphulinae. In early literature, the subfamily Nymphulinae was known as the Hydrocampinae and more recently as the Acentropinae by Speidel (1984). Some systematists now separate the traditional Pyralidae into two families: Pyralidae and Crambidae. Under that classification, the Nymphulinae would be in the Crambidae. The more traditional usage is retained here and the Nymphulinae are considered part of the Pyralidae.
Early classification of the Nymphulinae was based on appearance of the adults. As a result, many genera (especially Pyraustinae) were included in the Nymphulinae. Speidel (1984) summarized the genera included in the Nymphulinae by Klima (1937) that belong in other subfamilies. Studying genitalia characters has been helpful in determining relationships, but a satisfactory classification of the Nymphulinae cannot be achieved until the immature stages, particularly the larvae, are known. More information is also needed on larval host plants, biology, and seasonal and geographic distribution.
Rearing of adults from larvae and /or pupae is necessary to associate adults with their immature stages. Collection of adults and immatures in the same area is not proof of their association. Plant feeding species can be collected as larvae and held individually in containers with the food plant. Aeration of the water is helpful, but not usually necessary if the water is changed frequently. If several larvae are collected, they can be compared, and if they are the same, a few can be killed in boiling water and preserved in 70% alcohol. The remaining larvae can be reared. When the adult emerges, the cocoon which contains the larval and pupal skins should be saved with the adult for future study. Adults should be allowed to expand their wings fully and to harden before they are killed. Field-collected pupae in cocoons can be held individually out of water in small containers with moist paper toweling to keep humidity high. Adults have emerged up to 14 days after removal from the water (Habeck, unpublished). Rock-living larvae from fast flowing streams are difficult to rear without special rearing tanks, but cocoons containing pupae that are carefully removed from the rock can be reared as outlined above. Until the larval and pupal stages are known and revisionary studies are carried out on a worldwide basis, the placement of species into genera and higher categories must be considered tentative.
Little information has been published on the aquatic moths of China. Most publicaitons consist of new species descriptions based on adults. The best known species are those attacking rice or other aquatic plants. Much of the biological information in this chapter is based upon studies of the same or similar species in other countries. The detailed studies on the Nymphulinae of Japan and Thailand (Yoshiyasu 1985, 1987) and the Palaearctic Nymphulinae (as Acentropinae) (Speidel 1984) have been particularly useful. Information on the species occurring in China was obtained from the above sources plus the useful treatments by Park (1980, 1983), Wang (1980, 1981), Wu (1938), Luh and Chih-hu (1953), Shibuya 1928, Klima (1937) and Hampson (1897, 1906). Most of these publications include general and species now placed in other subfamilies.
Location: 241
Literature cited 1: None
Literature cited 2: None
ID: 52305
Title: Trichoptera
Author: Glenn B Wiggins, John C Morse, Yang Lianfang, Tian Lixin, Li Youwen
Editor: John C Morse, Yang Liangang and Tian Lixin
Year: 1994
Publisher: Hohai University Press, 1994, 1st Edition
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Aquatic Insects of China useful for monitoring water quality
Keywords: Caddisflies, lotic water, lentic, portable cases, labium, silk,
Abstract: The Trichoptera, or Caddisflies, one of the largest groups of aquatic insects, are closely related to the Lepidoptera. Like the Lepidoptera, they are holometabolous. Except for a few land-dwelling species (Flint 1958, Anderson 1967) that are secondarily adapted to life out of water, caddisflies are aquatic in the immature stages, respiring while totally submersed in the water and doing so independently of atmospheric oxygen. Adults of almost all species are active winged insects, although females of at least one North American species are wingless in winter months (Ross 1944, Figure 171). The Chinese Caddisflies include over 500 species representing 99 genera in 26 currently recognized families. The number of species actually occuring in China is surely much greater than this; based on our recent studies, about 70% of species presently being captured in China are still new to science. This taxonomic richness is a consequence of the broad ecological diversity of the order (wiggins and Mackay 1978). Caddisflies occur in most types of freshwater habitats: spring streams and seepage areas, rivers, lakes, marshes, and temporary pools. They have been particulaly successful in subdividing resources within these habitats. General summaries of information on the biology of Trichoptera are available in works by several authors: Betten (1934), Balduf (1939), Lepneva (1964, 1966), Malicky (1973), Wiggins (1977), Mackay and Wiggins (1979), and Wiggins (1984).
All Chinese families are represented in cool, lotic water, and they have been successful, to varying degrees, in exploiting freshwater habitats that are larger, warmer and more lentic. Most larvae eat plant materials in one form or another-algae, especially diatoms on rocks, decaying vascular plant tissue, and the associated microorganisms-but living vascular plant tissue is less commonly consumed; some larvae are mainly predaceous. Generally, larval Trichoptera show little selectivity of food, but they are highly and diversely specialized for food acquisition (Table 15 A).
Caddisfly larvae are perhaps best known for the remarkable nets, retreats, and portable cases they construct. Silk, emitted through an opening at the tip of the labium (15.27), is used either by itself (for ex, Figs 15.1- 15.2, 15.6) or to fasten together rock fragments and pieces of plant materials (for ex Figs 15.7- 15.23). Retreats and cases differ widely in design, materials, and function, but on the whole are consistent at the generic level. Case-making behavior coincides so closely with the diverse ecological roles the larvae fill, that families are usefully categorized into five groups on this basis.
Location: 241
Literature cited 1: None
Literature cited 2: None
ID: 52304
Title: Megaloptera and aquatic neuroptera
Author: Yang Ding, Yang Chikun
Editor: John C Morse, Yang Liangang and Tian Lixin
Year: 1994
Publisher: Hohai University Press, 1994, 1st Edition
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Aquatic Insects of China useful for monitoring water quality
Keywords: Holometabolous insects, Coydalidae, Sialidae, Protohermes grandis, margotars mushi, instars
Abstract: The order Megaloptera is often considered to be the most primitive group of holometabolous insects. There are about 300 known species from the world which are divided into two families, Corydalidae and Sialidae. The adults are terrestrial, predaceous, and usually nocturnal; however, the larvae are aquatic and predaceous. The larvae may be used as angling bait, while dried larvae of Protohermes grandis, referred to as ' margotars mushi ' in Japan, were considered a remedy for infant emotional irritation. Ten genera and about 70 species are known from China. Larval corydalids occur in a wide variety of habitats including spring seeps, streams, rivers, lakes, ponds, swamps, and even temporarily dry streambeds. The life cycle is 2-5 years along with the larvae passing through 10-12 instars. They feed on a wide variety of small aquatic invertebrates. Pupation occurs mostly terrestrially in chambers in the soil adjacent to the larval habitat. However, some species pupate in dry streambeds, and others prefer soft, rotting shoreline logs or stumps. Adults emerge from late spring to midsummer. They are most active in the evening and do no feed. Larval sialids are usually abundant in streams, rivers, or lakes where the substrate is soft and detritus is abundant. Larvae usually burrow into the substrate and feed nonselectively on small animals such as insects larvae, annelids, crustaceans, and mollusks. They pass through as many as 10 instars during a one-to two-year life cycle. Prior to pupation, larvae leave the stream, river or lake and pupate in an unlined chamber dug 1-10 cm deep in shoreline soil and litter. Adults usually emerge from late spring to early summer and are active during warm midday hours. The adults do not feed.
Location: 241
Literature cited 1: None
Literature cited 2: None
ID: 52303
Title: Aquatic and semiaquatic Hemiptera
Author: Zheng Leyi, Chen Pingping, Liu Goqing and Ren Shuzhi
Editor: John C Morse, Yang Liangang and Tian Lixin
Year: 1994
Publisher: Hohai University Press, 1994, 1st Edition
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Aquatic Insects of China useful for monitoring water quality
Keywords: Heteroptera, Sternorrhyncha , Auchenorrhyncha , Cercopoidea , Cicadelloidea (Auchenorrhyncha), Geocorisae (=Gymnocerata) , Hydrocorisae (=Cryptocerata), Amphibicorisae,aquatic ,semiaquatic bugs , slender-legged Nepidae, leptopodomorphan Saldidae, G
Abstract: The order Hemiptera is divided into three suborders, as discussed in Chapter 8, with its phylogeny as in fig 8.5. The aquatic and semiaquatic groups essentially all occur in the suborder Heteroptera. Species of the suborders Sternorrhyncha and Auchenorrhyncha usually are terrestrial, although a few Cercopoidea and Cicadelloidea (Auchenorrhyncha) may be considered marginally semiaquatic, having more or less permanent association with marine intertidal zones and freshwater margins. Most of the Heteroptera are terrestrial in habit, only a smaller part of this suborder is closely associated wth the water environments (i.e. aquatic, semiaquatic and littoral groups) which will be discussed in this book.
The higher classification of Heteroptera has changed in recent years. Traditionally it has been divided itno Geocorisae (=Gymnocerata) and Hydrocorisae (=Cryptocerata), the former are terrestrial and the latter are more or less aquatic. The semiaquatic groups are sometimes separated from the ' Hydrocorisae sensu lato ' to form an independent group called ' Amphibicorisae ' . These systems usually appeared in the entomological textbooks before the 1970 ' s. A new system including 7 infra-orders proposed by P.Stys and I.M.Kerzhner in 1975 is now widely accepted by heteropterists, in which the Nepomorpha, Gerromorpha and Leptopodomorpha comprise the so-called ' aquatic and semiaquatic bugs ' . The infraorder Nepomorpha (other than Ochteroidea: Gelastocoridae and Ochteridae) normally live in the water, spending most of their life-span in water bodies and leaving water only for migration. Most of them are good swimmers with streamlined bodies. The Notonectidae and the minute Pleidae swim upside down, with their dorsal side convex like the bottom of a boat. The slender-legged Nepidae are not adapted to swimming, but usually crawl on the bottom silt or cling to vegetation. Many nepomorphan families are lentic, but some naucorid genera and most Aphelocheiridae perfer streams or rapids, often hiding under stones or pebbles on the bottom. Some species of Corixidae occur in saline ponds. The Ochteroidea (Gelastocoridae and Ochteridae) are littoral inhabitants, like the Gerromorpha and semiaquatic Leptopodomorpha, below. Ochteridae occur on muddy shores of ponds and marshes while Gelastocoridae usually prefer sandy shores, sometimes hiding in crevices, under stones, or half buried in the sand.
The semiaquatic infraorder Gerromorpha are water-surface dwellers, gliding or walking on water with their body weights supported by the surface tension. The ventral side of the body and tarsi are covered by a thick layer of dense hydrofuge pubescence, thus rendering these bugs unwettable, while the claws are wettable and penetrate into the water, dragging or pushing the body forward. The gerromorphans inhabit both still water bodies and streams. Most mesoveliids, hydrometrids and hebrids prefer marshes, small ponds, and rice paddies with abundant vegetation. Some gerrids and veliids occur on fast-running rapids, some others can be found on muddy shores, wet rocks, mosses or perpendicular cliffs in the vicinity of water. The water-striders of Halobatinae and some Velliidae drift on the surface of open seas, they are true pelagic forms, making up the main portion of the otherwise sparse marine insect fauna.
The infraorder Leptopodomorpha are a small group living in shore habitats. The agile Saldidae are easily seen on the mud at the shores of ponds and marshes, they are alert, ready to leap and making short low flight when disturbed. Some occur at the sea shore and others prefer harsh alpine environments, even close to glaciers. The Leptopodidae are found on boulders or under pebbles along river banks and are only rarely seen. Nearly all the aquatic and semiaquatic Heteroptera are zoophagous. The aquatic Nepomorpha prey on other aquatic insects, snails, tadpoles and small fishes, piercing their prey with stylets and sucking the body juice. The only exception is the polyphagous Corixidae which mainly consume algae and detritus, although some species are predaceous on animals such as chironomid larvae. The gerromorphans usually feed on living or dead insects and other small animals that fall on the water surface. The leptopodomorphan Saldidae detect and pierce insect larvae and other soil animals buried in the surface layer of mud or wet sand.
In Nepomorpha, the respiration problem is solved by carrying an air store between the wings and abdomen. The air store is obtained and replenished by touching abdomen apex with the water surface (Notonectidae, Pleidae and Naucoridae), through a short caudal siphon (Belostomatidae) or an elongate one (Nepidae). The Aphelocheiridae are famous in being able to stay under water almost indefinitely without replenishing their air store, doing so with the aid of a well-developed plastron system. The nepomorphan bugs are usually fully winged, some are good fliers migrating between water bodies. Some speices of water bugs (especially those of Corixidae, Belostomatidae, Aphelocheiridae) show strong positive phototaxis and , thus, can be attracted by lights at night, sometimes in enormous numbers. In Gerromorpha, wing polymorphism is common; the wingless forms are found in almost every family; in many cases, individuals with different wing-lengths (from apterous up to macropterous forms) may occur in the same species or population.
In Nepomorpha, sound production and stridulatory structures are frequently found in Corixidae, Gelastocoridae, Helotrephidae, Naucoridae, Nepidae, and Notonectidae and are suspected in a few other families (Polhemus in press a). The stridulatory sounds produced by corixids in an aquarium colony are sometimes clearly audible by humans. In Gerromorpha mainly the Veliidae (Anderson 1982) and in Leptopodomorpha the Leptopodidae (Pericart and Polhemus 1990) and Saldidae (Polhemus 1985) have evident stridulatory mechanisms.
According to Polhemus (1984), there are about 3200 recorded species of aquatic and semiaquatic Hemiptera in the world (more recently revised to about 3800 species in 317 genera; Polthemus in correspondence). In a recent check-list of nepomorphan families (Stys & Jansson 1988), this infra-order consists of 11 families. In China, the following 10 families have been found: Belostomatidae, Ochteridae, Gelastocoridae, Aphelocheiridae, Naucoridae, Pleidae, Helotrephidae, Notonectidae and Corixidae. In Gerromorpha, Andersen (1982) listed 8 families, in which Mesoveliidae, Hebridae, Hydrometridae, Hermatobatidae, Veliidae and Gerridae have been recorded in our fauna. In the 4 families of Leptopodomorpha, only Saldidae and Leptopodidae are known to occur in this country. Useful overviews for this fauna on a world basis include those of Menke (1979) and Polhemus (1994).
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ID: 52302
Title: Plecoptera
Author: P.P.Harper
Editor: John C Morse, Yang Liangang and Tian Lixin
Year: 1994
Publisher: Hohai University Press, 1994, 1st Edition
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Aquatic Insects of China useful for monitoring water quality
Keywords: Stoneflies, alpine, boreal lakes, oligotrophic lakes, Baikaloperia kozhovi Zapekina-Dulkeit nad Zhiltzova (Capniidae),
Abstract: Plecoptera (stoneflies) are primarily associated with clean, cool running water, althoug a number of species are adapted to life in alpine and boreal lakes, as well as in large oligotrophic lakes in temperate regions. Several species inhabit streams that warm up or dry up in summer or that are organically enriched. As far as is known, eggs and larvae (or nymphs or nalads) of all Asian speices are aquatic, and, with the exception of Baikaloperia kozhovi Zapekina-Dulkeit nad Zhiltzova (Capniidae) living in the depth of Lake Baikal, adults are terrestrial. The following short account of the biology and ecology of stoneflies can be supplemented with the comprehensive treatise of Hynes (1976). There are few ecological studies on the stoneflies of the eastern Asian mainland; the main existing sources of information are the studies of Bishop (such as 1973) in Malaysia. Dudgeon (such as 1982, 1984) in Hong Kong, Yoon in Korea (see Yoon and Sung 1985, 1986 for references) and Levanidova and Nikolaeva (see bibiliography) in the Russian Far East. Numerous studies have, however, been conducted in Japan.
Location: 241
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ID: 52301
Title: Odonata
Author: Zhao Xiufu
Editor: John C Morse, Yang Liangang and Tian Lixin
Year: 1994
Publisher: Hohai University Press, 1994, 1st Edition
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Aquatic Insects of China useful for monitoring water quality
Keywords: Anisoptera, Zygoptera, dragonflies, damselflies, Anisozygoptera, nymph, naiad, instars
Abstract: The order Odonata consists of two suborders, namely, Anisoptera and Zygoptera. They are generally called dragonflies and damselflies, respectively. A third suborder Anisozygoptera, which is respected by a species in the Himalaya Mountains and another species in Japan, has not been found in vast territories of China between these two places. There are slightly over 400 species of the order Odonata that have been found in China. This number is certainly too small as compared with the 5,000 species of the whole world fauna. Probably 200 species can still be found and added to the Chinese fauna. Dragonflies and damselflies have an incomplete metamorphosis with the larva (nymph, naiad) going through 10-15 instars.
Very few chinese species are known from their immature stages. In order to compensate this deficiency, it is necessary to adopt key characters taken from the literature on exotic species. Even so, the following keys to the Chinese dragonfly fauna are far from complete. Many genera which are known from adults in China are not included in the keys to the larvae.
Location: 241
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ID: 52300
Title: Ephemeroptera
Author: Gui Hong
Editor: John C Morse, Yang Liangang and Tian Lixin
Year: 1994
Publisher: Hohai University Press, 1994, 1st Edition
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Aquatic Insects of China useful for monitoring water quality
Keywords: Carboniferous Period, Permian Period, Paleozoic Era,Ephemera,Cloeon triange. Diphetor hagani, Acerpenna macdunnoughi, Caenis cuniana , Ameletus ludens, Cloeon triange, pathogens, hibernate
Abstract: The mayflies are an ancient and primitive order of living, winged insects. The earliest fossils are from the Carboniferous Period and the Permian Period in the Paleozoic Era with a history of at least two hundred fifty million years. The mayfly is soft and delicate in body form. It is said that the Grecian scholar Aristotle, upon observing the flight fo its imago in the air and its instant fall to death, gave it a name of "Ephemera" observing it to be "so short-lived as to be born at dawn and dead at dusk". It was early in the Dynasty of Eastern Zhou (about 625 B.C) that the Book of Poesy praised its feathers and wings respectively as a pulchritudinous raiment and variegated apparel. Thereafter, in the writings of later generations may be found a meticulous and vivid description of ecological observation on the mayfly. Judged from the scientific and technological level at that time, the above mentioned findings prove to be valuable and commendable.
Mayflies are nearly cosmopolitan The larvae of various species inhabit an extensive range of standing and running fresh waters. The adult (and subimago), vestigial in mouthparts and nonfunctional in mandibles, takes no food. The alimentary canal of the males is inflated with air. It is so short-lived as to last merely a few minutes up to several days, while the females of some species in the genera Callibaetis and cloeon, which holds the eggs until they are ready to hatch, may live for several weeks. The adult mayfly has two main functions, mating and oviposition. Mayflies always hover in swarms over the water area of their habitat 10-45 meters above the water surface. This phenomenon is called ' mating flight ' . In the course therof, mayflies proceed with their copulation. The male dies shortly after mating. The swarms of fallen males on the water surface afford the fishes with delicious food.
Eggs vary from ovoid to nearly rectangular. Their length generally ranges between 150?m and 200 ?m. The eggs of some larger species (for example, Hexagenia) are 250-300 ?m in width and even up to 1mm in length in the Behningiidae. The eggs are usually deposited on the water surface, a few at a time or all in one or two clusters. A few adults drop clusters of eggs from the air. Eggs of most mayflies have sticky coverings, frequently with specific anchoring devices or with sticky filaments stretched from the surface and attached to a stone. The follicle of some eggs has colloid substances. Eggs structure is useful in taxonomic and phylogenetic analyses. The length of the incubation period varies with different species and temperatures. It ranges from several days to several months. Generally, the eggs are hatched within 1-2 weeks. Besides, some genera of Ephemerella in the west develop directly. In addition, there has been found parthenogenesis in such mayflies as Cloeon triange. Diphetor hagani, Acerpenna macdunnoughi, Caenis cuniana and Ameletus ludens. The phenominon of ovoviviparity is observable in Baetidae alone.
The larvae have a large number of postembryonic molts. The estimated highest number amounts to 40-50 times. Generally, it ranges between 15 and 35 times. The life span of larvae varies with temperature. Generally, it ranges from 3 to 6 months, but may be as short as 16 to 22 days (for example, Parameletus columbiae McDunnough) or as long as two years (for example, Hexagenia limbata Serville). Most mayflies hibernate as larvae, and some as eggs.
Emergence is the critical stage for the transition of mayflies from the aquatic larva to teh terrestrial subimago. The timing of emergence is regulated by dial periodicity and season in accordance with temperature conditions. The subimago stage with cloudy wings and sexual immaturity, is a unique period in the life history of mayflies. The subimago period of some species lasts merely a few minutes, and that of most subimagos, 24-48 hours. The subimagos usually inhabit plants near the bank. Some short-lived subimagos fall from the air within 1-2 minutes.
Most mayfly larvae are collectors or scrapers and feed on a variety of detritus and algae, and some macrophyte and animal material. A few species are true carnivores. Frequently food habits vary during he growth period.
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ID: 52299
Title: General classification and key to the orders of aquatic and semiaquatic insects
Author: Howell V Daly
Editor: John C Morse, Yang Liangang and Tian Lixin
Year: 1994
Publisher: Hohai University Press, 1994, 1st Edition
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Aquatic Insects of China useful for monitoring water quality
Keywords: None
Abstract: None
Location: 241
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ID: 52298
Title: Phylogenetic relationships and evolutionary adaptations of aquatic insects
Author: Vincent H Resh, John O Solem and John C Morse
Editor: John C Morse, Yang Liangang and Tian Lixin
Year: 1994
Publisher: Hohai University Press, 1994, 1st Edition
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Aquatic Insects of China useful for monitoring water quality
Keywords: Phylogenetics, evolutionary changes, environment
Abstract: Evolutionary biologists generally accept the hypothesis that life originated in the sea and from there all species of plants and animals evolved. Of the animals, the insects have undergone perhaps the most remarkable adaptive radiation, constituting about 85% of the species of animals known today. Today, representatives of this arthropod class can be found in almost every conceivable terrestrial and aquatic habitat. Results of the study of the historical relationships of species, or the field of phylogenetics, permit us to understand the direction and the rate of evolutionary chages through time and how those changes were adaptive for the organisms that experienced them. By understanding the manner by which the organisms are adaptive to their environment, we can do a better job of protectign them, and ultimately ourselves, from the effects of changes in the environment.
Location: 241
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