ID: 53002
Title: Diversity and evolution of micro-organisms and pathways for the degradation of environmental contaminants: a case study with teh s-triazine herbicides
Author: Michael Jay Sadowsky
Editor: Lesley C. Batty and Kevin B. Hallberg
Year: 2010
Publisher: Cambridge University Press, 2010
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Ecology of Industrial Pollution
Keywords: Microbial evolution, abiotic factors, biotic factors, catabolic expansion
Abstract: On 7 December 1854, Louis Pasteur is quoted as saying ' Dans les champs de I ' observation le hasard ne favorise que les esprits prepares ' . This statement, which has been often translated as ' Chance favours the prepared mind ' , can, after slight modification, also be applied to the interaction of micro-organisms with anthropogenic growth substrates. Namely, that chance favours the prepared bacterium! Given the strong selection pressure for growth of micro-organisms in natural environments, microbial species that have the ability to rapidly acquire new genes that allow them to utilise newly introduced anthropogenic compounds gain a selective advantage for growth over others living in the same environment. This may eventually lead to changes in microbial populations and community structure over time. While the evolution of microbial genes, and even pathways, for the catabolism of novel compounds released into the environment was originally thought to take long periods of time (on an evolutionary scale), recent evidence indicates that microbes and their genomes are relatively plastic (Jain et al. 2002; Mira et al. 2002), and as such can evolve the ability to utilize new carbon and energy sources in a relatively short time frame, from years to tens of years (Seffernick & Wackett 2001). This phenomenon has led to paradigm shifts in the way in which we view microbial evolution and the potential impact of anthropogenic perturbations on microbial processes. While several approaches have been used to examine the evolution of bacterial genes and pathways for substrate utilization, many have been rather artificial, using idealised growth conditions, limited microbial diversity, specialised laboratory growth media, chemostats and novel substrates with structural similarities to natural compounds. Although these approaches yield useful information for our understanding of microbial catabolic processes, these conditions rarely mimic what happens in natural systems containing a large number of micro-organisms, and their mosaic genomes (Martin 1999; Omelchenko et al 2003), where growth is often limited by complex abiotic and biotic factors. Consequently, to obtain a more complete understanding of the acquisition of new metabolic potential, it is often better to examine enhancement of catabolism across microbial taxa in natural soil and water systems that have been exposed to novel new compounds over time. Moreover, catabolic expansion, defined here as the ability of micro-organisms to gain the ability to metabolise truly novel compounds, requires the examination of new chemical compounds that do not share structural or chemical properties with natural ones. In this way, the increase in catabolic ability is less likely to occur by accumulation of point mutations over time, but rather by more rapid acquisition of new enzymes whose activities are recruited into existing or newly created degradation pathways. Both Janssen et al. (2005) and Wackett (2004) provide excellent reviews on the evolution of new enzymes for the microbial degradation of novel and xenobiotic compounds, and the reader is pointed to these reviews for more comprehensive discussions.
Location: 215
Literature cited 1: None
Literature cited 2: None
ID: 53001
Title: An ecological risk assessment framework for assessing risks from contaminated land in England and Wales
Author: Stephen Roast, Tim Gannicliffe, Danielle K. Ashton, Rachel Benstead, Paul R. Bradford, Paul Whitehouse and Declan Barraclough
Editor: Lesley C. Batty and Kevin B. Hallberg
Year: 2010
Publisher: Cambridge University Press, 2010
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Ecology of Industrial Pollution
Keywords: Ecological risk assessment (ERA), chemical contaminants
Abstract: An ecological risk assessment (ERA) may be described as ' a process that evaluates the likelihood that adverse ecological effects may occur or are occurring as a result of exposure to one or more stressors ' (USEPA 1992.1998). Arguably the most common stressors are chemical contaminants, and regulatory authorities in many countries around the world use ERA schemes to determine whether chemical contaminants are impacting on ecological systems. The USA, the Netherlands, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the UK have all spent considerable resources developing ERAs for use under their respective regulatory regimes But , although each country has developed its ERA schemes for its own specific regulatory needs, the approach taken is broadly similar for all ERAs.
Location: 215
Literature cited 1: None
Literature cited 2: None
ID: 53000
Title: With the benefit of hindsight: the utility of palaeoecology in wetland condition assessment and identification of restoration targets
Author: Peter Gell
Editor: Lesley C. Batty and Kevin B. Hallberg
Year: 2010
Publisher: Cambridge University Press, 2010
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Ecology of Industrial Pollution
Keywords: Pollution, benthic substrates, photic zone, phytoplankton, wetland systems
Abstract: Pollution sources to aquatic ecosystems can be categorised as point (or direct), those derived from identifiable sources such as sewage treatment plant out falls, or diffuse, where the source of pollutant is more difficult to identify, such as surface erosion. In the former case, the effluent loads can be high; however, by virtue of a more clear relationship between source and impact, cause is more readily identifiable and solutions more readily encouraged or directed (Smol 2008). Diffuse pollution sources often create chronic symptoms of elevated pollution loads that are more difficult to establish experimentally and more difficult to identify spatially. In many instances, the drivers of these heightened releases of pollutants to receiving waters have a long history and originated from settlements and developments that extend beyond the memory of modern societies. The widespread and deep-in-time nature of diffuse sources of pollution, coupled with their nature as being, effectively, multiple point sources, renders the identification of the causes of diffuse pollution uncertain and so poses a greater challenge in terms of mitigation. Diffuse pollutants are most often represented by sediments and solutes. Widespread vegetation clearance, catchment settlement, intensive tilling and cropping and excessive stocking rates of grazing animals all contribute to exposing surface soils to erosive forces that increase sediment loads to aquatic systems. This act to increase sedimentation rates in streams and lakes and to increase the turbidity of the water itself. The chronic increase in supply of clays and colloids leads to a reduction in light penetration removing benthic substrates from the photic zone and advantaging phytoplankton over more productive attached macrophytes (Reid et al . 2007). In some systems, floodplain sediments are bound with native phosphorus (Olley & Wallbrink 2004), which is remobilised when riparian surfaces are exposed or when changes to the hydrological response of the catchment elevates the erosive potential of storm runoff. This change acts to further advantage productive phytoplankton reinforcing the state shift from a previous clear-water condition. The same catchment changes driving erosion also alter teh surface-groundwater balance and can lead to the increased accession of precipitation to recharge zones. The resultant increased hydraulic pressure can expand upslope the region of groundwater discharge (Macumber 1991) and , where this is overlain by strata rich in connate salts, can lead to surface secondary salination. This leads to increased flux of solutes to aquatic systems elevating surface water salinity. The associated increased sodicity leads to soil efflorescence and makes the soil surface more dispersive and erodable (Neave & Rayburg 2006). Furthermore, in provinces rich in sulphate salts, the burial of sulphates in sites of sediment accumulation can lead to the rapid production of sulphides. These, if exposed under conditions of drought, for example, can lead to the release of sulphurous acids in the manner of acid sulphate soils in coastal contexts where sediments and salts have accumulated over millennia. In all, the sum of many diffuse sources of pollution, delivered at very low loads over long periods, can result in a cocktail of acute salinity, acidity, turbidity or eutrophication. Ultimately, due to the interrelatedness of the drivers of pollution, several pollution symptoms can emerge synchronously in wetland systems (Gell et al. 2007a). Here, the multifaceted suite of drivers in action makes cause and effect particularly difficult to unravel.
Location: 215
Literature cited 1: None
Literature cited 2: None
ID: 52999
Title: Detecting ecological effects of pollutants in the aquatic enviornment
Author: Alastair Grant
Editor: Lesley C. Batty and Kevin B. Hallberg
Year: 2010
Publisher: Cambridge University Press, 2010
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Ecology of Industrial Pollution
Keywords: Contaminants, ecotoxicology, pollution
Abstract: In the marine environment a widely used definition of pollution is the ' introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the marine environment (including estuaries) resulting in deleterious effects such as harm to living resources, hazards to human health, hindrance of marine activities, including fishing, impairing quality for use of sea-water and reduction of amenities ' (GESAMP 1982 - my emphasis). The increasing sophistication of analytical chemical methods means that we can detect contamination by a wide range of chemicals in almost any aquatic environment . But the rational regulation of direct contaminant discharges to the environment and the setting of priorities for dealing with contaminants arising from diffuse sources requires us to be able to identify the subset of cases of contamination where deleterious effects are, or may be, occurring. There has been considerable recent improvement in methods for prospective risk assessment-methods that allow an assessment of whether particular concentrations of a substance might cause ecological effects in the field. For example, the development of species sensitivity distributions has given greatly improved information on whether the sensitivity of standard laboratory test organisms reflects the sensitivity of the much wider range of organisms that occur in the field (see, e.g., Maltby et al. 2005), and there is discussion of risk assessment methods elsewhere in this volume. However, determining whether an individual substance actually is having deleterious effects on the ecology at any particular location remains a major challenge for ecotoxicology. The aim of this chapter is to review recent advances in methods for detecting ecological effects of pollutants at field sites, and discuss the reasons why it is often difficult to do better than detecting areas where there is severe ecological damage. I will aslo review some examples from the literature, including my own work, where it has proved possible to detect subtle ecological changes due to pollution or subtle effects of contaminants on individual organisms that, if continued in the medium and long term, will feed through into ecological effects at a population level. So there are circumstances where we can detect subtle effects of pollution on field populations. An understanding of the conditions necessary to achieve this, combined with an appreciation of the reasons why this is sometimes not possible, leads us to the conclusion that it is likely that there are many other aquatic locations where pollution is having adverse ecological effects but where we are not able to detect them using currently available methods.
Location: 215
Literature cited 1: None
Literature cited 2: None
ID: 52998
Title: Ecological monitoring and assessment of pollution in rivers
Author: J. Iwan Jones, John Davy-Bowker, John F. Murphy and James L. Pretty
Editor: Lesley C. Batty and Kevin B. Hallberg
Year: 2010
Publisher: Cambridge University Press, 2010
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Ecology of Industrial Pollution
Keywords: RIVPACS (River InVertebrate Prediction And Classification System), Biomonitoring techiques, macroinvertebrates,
Abstract: Many organisms respond to pollution in a predictable way, and it has long been realised that the biota can be used to determine the extent of pollution at a site, a technique termed biomonitoring. Much of the science of biomonitoring developed in aquatic systems, driven by concerns about the impact of industrial and domestic pollution on potable water resources. Over the past century, aquatic biomonitoring has travelled a long way from the early methodologies, and much about the pitfalls and benefits of using biota to assess pollution or other stressors has been discovered. Here we describe the history of biomonitoring and how our understanding has developed, with particular focus on RIVPACS (River InVertebrate Prediction And Classification System). This system marked a major advance in biomonitoring techniques, introducing the reference condition approach, where the physical and geographcial characteristics of the river were taken into account when determining what taxa would be expected to be present if the site were not polluted. Assessement of a site was then based on a comparison of the observed community and derived scores, to that expected if the site were not polluted. RIVPACS was also the first biomonitoring tool to incorporate a measure of uncertainity; any assessment is based on spatially and temporally variable samples and it is necessary to calculate the confidence associated with the quality class derived using these samples. We are now in an era where the Water Framework Directive places a legal obligation on European nations to use the biota to assess the ecological quality of their rivers, lakes, coastal and transitional (brackish) water bodies. This legislation marks a move away from assessing the influence of a single pressure (organic pollution) on the water body, and now elements of the biota, other than just macroinvertebrates, are used to assess a wide range of pressures on ecological quality (e.g., acidification, low flows, hydromorphology, heavy metals). As the Water Framework Directive requires member states to achieve ' Good ' ecological status by 2015, techniques are now urgentl;y required that can predict the consequences and cost-effectiveness of potentially difficult and expensive catchment management measures. There is now an unprecedented drive by water managers and freshwater biologists to develop the wide range of biomonitoring tools needed to predict and support the return of ecological integrity to Euopean water after decades of industrial, agricultural and domestic impacts;and this against an uncertain background o global change.
Location: 215
Literature cited 1: None
Literature cited 2: None
ID: 52997
Title: Impacts of emerging contaminants on the environment
Author: Alistair Boxall
Editor: Lesley C. Batty and Kevin B. Hallberg
Year: 2010
Publisher: Cambridge University Press, 2010
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Ecology of Industrial Pollution
Keywords: Heavy metals, pesticides, organic chemicals, PAHs, PCBs, dioxins,contaminants
Abstract: Until very recently, the main focus on chemicals in the enviornment has been on heavy metals, pesticides and other organic chemicals such as PAHs, PCBs and dioxins. In recent years, there has been increasing concern over the so called ' emerging contaminants ' such as metabolites, transformation products (formed in the environment and treatment processes), human pharmaceuticals, veterinary medicines, nanomaterials, personal care products and flame retardants. These substances have been shown to be released to the environment, or in the case of nanomaterials, will be released to the environment in increasing amounts in the future. In the few monitoring studies that have looked for them, they have been detected in surface waters, groundwaters and drinking waters (e.g., Kolpin et al, 1998 a,b;2002; Ferrer et al. 2000; Juhler et al. 2001; Li et al. 2001; Schnoebelen et al . 2001; Lagana et al. 2002; Zimmerman et al. 2002; Battaglin et al. 2003). Alongside the monitoring, studies have been performed to explore the effects of a range of emerging contaminants at the biochemical, cellular, whole organism, population and community levels. While much of the data that have been produced on different classes of emerging contaminants indicate that many pose a small risk to ecosystems and human health, there is some evidence that selected emerging contaminants could affect human and environmental health. For example, the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac was found to be responsible for the decline in populations of vulture species in Asia (Oaks et al . 2004); the antiparasitic drug ivermectin has been shown to affect invertebrates at concentraitons lower than those that could occur in the aquatic environment (Garric et al . 2007); ehtinylestradiol has been associated with endocrine disruption in fish (Lange et al . 2001); and there is concern that long-term exposure to antibacterial pharmaceuticals may be contributing to the selection of resistant bacteria (Boxall et al. 2003 a).
In this chapter, we provide an overview of the inputs, fate and behaviour and environmental effects of a selection of emerging contaminants: engineered nanomaterials, human and veterinary pharmaceuticals and transformation products. We also discuss possible approaches for identifying those emerging contaminants that are likely to pose the greatest risk to human health and the environment,. Finally, recommendations on future research priorities are given.
Location: 215
Literature cited 1: None
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ID: 52996
Title: The impacts of mettaliferous drainage on aquatic communities in streams and rivers
Author: Lesley C. Batty, Montserrat Auladell and Jon Sadler
Editor: Lesley C. Batty and Kevin B. Hallberg
Year: 2010
Publisher: Cambridge University Press, 2010
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Ecology of Industrial Pollution
Keywords: Metals, mineral ore extraction, lead, cadmium, toxic
Abstract: Metals are naturally occurring elements of the Earth ' s crust that can be released into the aquatic environment through the processes of weathering and erosion, where they are present in trace amounts and do not normally constitute an environmental problem. However, the activity of humans has increased the release of many metals to the environment. It is difficult to assess what the natural background levels would have been in affected areas, particularly where the influence has been prolonged, but it has been reported that in mining areas concentrations of metals in waters and associated sediments can be 3-4 orders of magnitude higher following mineral ore extraction (Runnells et al. 1992; Helgen & Moore 1996). Although some of the metals released by human activities, such as Fe and Zn, are essential elements for the successful growth and functioning of biota, the presence of these substances in elevated concentrations or in other chemical forms can be potentially toxic. In addition, many metals, such as Pb and Cd, have no known role in biological functioning and can be toxic to organisms at very low concentrations. Therefore, the release of metals into the environment poses a significant threat to the fauna and flora of receiving water coures.
Location: 215
Literature cited 1: None
Literature cited 2: None
ID: 52995
Title: Lichens and industrial pollution
Author: Ole William Purvis
Editor: Lesley C. Batty and Kevin B. Hallberg
Year: 2010
Publisher: Cambridge University Press, 2010
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Ecology of Industrial Pollution
Keywords: Fungus, Cyanobacterium, lichens
Abstract: Lichens are composite organisms including at least one fungus (mycobiont) and an alga or cyanobacterium (photobiont) living in a mutualistic symbiosis (Hawksworth & Honegger 1994). The lichen symbiosis may involve multiple and different bionts, especially photobionts, at various stages in its life history (Hawksworth 1988; Jahns 1988). Lichenised fungi are ecologically obligate biotrophs acquiring carbon from their photobionts (Honegger 1997). Lichens colonize bark, rocks, soil and various other substrata, and occur in all terrestrial ecosystems, covering more than 6% of the Earth ' s land surface. They are dominant in Arctic and Antartic tundra regions where they form the key component of ecosystem processes, as a part of global biogeochemical cycles and also the food chain. Arctic and sub-Arctic lichen heaths are readily visible from space using remote sensing techniques and the effect of ' point source ' smelters in creating ' industrial barrens ' and emission reductions leading to recovery of Caldonia-rich heaths are well-documented (Tommervik et al. 1995, 1998, 2003).
Location: 215
Literature cited 1: None
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ID: 52994
Title: Metallophytes: The unique biological resource, its ecology and conservational status in Europe, Central Africa and Latin America
Author: Alan J. M. Baker, Wilfried H. O. Ernst, Antony Van Der Ent, Francois Malaisse and Rosanna Ginocchio
Editor: Lesley C. Batty and Kevin B. Hallberg
Year: 2010
Publisher: Cambridge University Press, 2010
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Ecology of Industrial Pollution
Keywords: Metalliferous soils, phytotoxicity, mineralization, Silene dioica, Silene vulgaris, metallophytes
Abstract: Metalliferous soils provide very restrictive habitats for plants due to phytotoxicity, resulting in severe selection pressures. Species comprising heavy-metal plant communities are genetically altered ecotypes with specific tolerances to, e.g. , cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, zinc and arsenic, adapted through micro-evolutionary processes. Evolution of metal tolerance takes place at each specific site (Ernst 2006). A high degree of metal tolerance depends on the bioavailable fraction of the metal (loids) in the soil and the type of mineralization. At extremely high soil metal concentrations, especially on polymetallic soils, even metal-tolerant genotypes are not able to evolve extreme tolerances to several heavy metals simultaneously. Adapted genotypes are the result of the Darwinian natural selection of metal - tolerant individuals selected from surrounding non-metalliferous populations (Antonovics et al 1971: Baker 1987: Ernst 2006). Such selection can lead ultimately to speciation and the evolution of endemic taxa. Heavy-metal tolerance was first reported by Prat (1934) in Silene dioica and demonstrated experimentally in grasses by Bradshaw and co-workers in Agrostis spp. and by Wilkins in Festuca ovina in the late 1950s and 1960s (see Antonovics et al. 1971) and from the early 1950s onwards in the herb Silene vulgaris by Baumeister and co-workers (see Ernst 1974). Metal-tolerant plants and intoxication by an excess of heavy metals by means of special cellular mechanisms, as long as the soil metal levels do not exceed the levels of metal tolerance (Ernst 1947; Ernst et al 2004). They can thus thrive on soils that are too toxic for non-adapted species and ecotypes. These unique plants with an ability to tolerate metal toxicities and survive and reproduce on metalliferous soils are called metallophytes.
Location: 215
Literature cited 1: None
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ID: 52993
Title: Consequence of living in an industrial world
Author: Lesley C. Batty and Kevin B. Hallberg
Editor: Lesley C. Batty and Kevin B. Hallberg
Year: 2010
Publisher: Cambridge University Press, 2010
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Ecology of Industrial Pollution
Keywords: Climate change, ectotoxicity, carbon dioxide, green house gases
Abstract: One of the first questions that faced us when preparing this introductory chapter was ' what do we mean by industry? ' In modern terms, one refers to the industrial revolution that began in the latter half of the eighteenth century, which circumscribes the change from an agriculturally based economy to one dominated by manufacturing. However, industrial processes have a history far longer than this, and can be traced back to the Bronze Age and even before, particularly the extraction of minerals. We could also consider agriculture to be an industry as it is the extraction of raw resources albeit in a rather different form. Therefore when we refer to industry, we are actually considering a very wide range of processes and activities. Common to all these, however, is the fact that the production of goods from raw resources creates by- products that can pollute the environment and adversely affect ecosystems.
The industrial pollutants produced and their impacts are potentially as varied as the sources from which they derive, and there has been extensive research into specific effects of individual contaminants on specific organisms or communities. The problem with this approach is that the resulting view is one that can be rather blinkered. It is becoming increasingly clear that, rather than simply causing deterioration of ecosystems, contaminated sites may well be sources of biodiversity. Organisms living on such sites can show great genetic adaptation and may prove useful in the remediation of other contaminated sites. In addition, the limitations of ecological monitoring have potentially caused problems in the assessment of impacts, and the detachment of research into remediation from that of ecotoxicology has resulted in inappropriate application of technologies and poor results in terms of restoration or remediation. Within this volume, we have tried to select a number of different types of industry in order to illustrate these general themes. It should be noted that, although many industrial processes release(d) carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, we have chosen not to cover this topic within this volume. Climate change is linked to many different causes (not just industry) and the discussions surrounding this area are sufficiently complex to merit their own substantial volume. However, it may be said that many of the key processes that result in impacts on ecological systems and the limits to restoration ecology could be extremely important in predicting responses and adaptation to climate change.
Location: 215
Literature cited 1: None
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ID: 52992
Title: Enivronmental Science
Author: Daniel D. Chiras
Editor: None
Year: 2010
Publisher: Jones and Bartlett India Pvt, Ltd, Eighth Edition
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Environmental Science
Keywords: None
Abstract: None
Location: 215
Literature cited 1: None
Literature cited 2: None
ID: 52991
Title: Land-Inland water ecotones as transitional systems of particularly high biodiversity: Towards a synthesis
Author: Jean-Bernard Lachavanne and Raphaelle Juge
Editor: Jean-Bernard Lachavanne and Raphaelle Juge
Year: 1997
Publisher: UNESCO and The Parthenon Publishing Group, Vol 18, 1997
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Biodiversity in Land-inland water ecotones
Keywords: None
Abstract: None
Location: 215
Literature cited 1: None
Literature cited 2: None
ID: 52990
Title: Biodiversity: A review of the scientific issues
Author: Stephen C. Stearns
Editor: Jean-Bernard Lachavanne and Raphaelle Juge
Year: 1997
Publisher: UNESCO and The Parthenon Publishing Group, Vol 18, 1997
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Biodiversity in Land-inland water ecotones
Keywords: None
Abstract: None
Location: 215
Literature cited 1: None
Literature cited 2: None
ID: 52989
Title: Scientific basis for conserving diversity along river margins
Author: Geoff Petts
Editor: Jean-Bernard Lachavanne and Raphaelle Juge
Year: 1997
Publisher: UNESCO and The Parthenon Publishing Group, Vol 18, 1997
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Biodiversity in Land-inland water ecotones
Keywords: None
Abstract: None
Location: 215
Literature cited 1: None
Literature cited 2: None
ID: 52988
Title: Ecotonal biodiversity and sustainability in unique tropical landscapes
Author: Heath J. Carney
Editor: Jean-Bernard Lachavanne and Raphaelle Juge
Year: 1997
Publisher: UNESCO and The Parthenon Publishing Group, Vol 18, 1997
Source: Centre for Ecological Science,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-12
Reference: None
Subject: Biodiversity in Land-inland water ecotones
Keywords: None
Abstract: None
Location: 215
Literature cited 1: None
Literature cited 2: None