Introduction

Wetlands constitute vital components of the regional hydrological cycle. They are highly productive, support exceptionally large biological diversity, and provide a wide range of ecosystem services such as food, fibre, waste assimilation, water purification, flood mitigation, erosion control, groundwater recharge, microclimate regulation,  enhance the aesthetics of the landscape, and support many significant recreational, social and cultural activities, aside from being a part of our cultural heritage. It was acknowledged that most urban wetlands are seriouslythreatened by conversion to non-wetland purposes, encroachment of drainage through landfilling, pollution (discharge of domestic and industrial effluents, disposal of solid wastes), hydrological alterations (water withdrawal and inflow changes), and over-exploitation of their natural resources. This results in loss of biodiversity and disruption in goods and services provided by wetlands (Ramachandra, 2009a,b,c; Ramachandra et al., 2012). Last section of this communication addresses the strategies considering the current trends in aquatic ecosystem conservation, restoration, and management including the hydrological and the biophysical aspects, peoples’ participation and the role of non-governmental, educational, and governmental organisations and future research needs for the restoration, conservation, and management.

Urbanisation is a form of metropolitan growth that is a response to often-bewildering sets of economic, social, and political forces and to the physical geography of an area. It is the increase in the population of cities in proportion to the region's rural population. The 20th century is witnessing "the rapid urbanisation of the world’s population", as the global proportion of urban population rose dramatically from 13% (220 million) in 1900, to 29% (732 million) in 1950, to 49% (3.2 billion) in 2005 and is projected to rise to 60% (4.9 billion) by 2030 (UN, 2005). Urban ecosystems are the consequence of the intrinsic nature of humans as social beings to live together (Ramachandra et al., 2012b; Ramachandra and Kumar, 2008). The process of urbanisation contributed by infrastructure initiatives, consequent population growth and migration results in the growth of villages into towns, towns into cities and cities into metros. Urbanisation and urban sprawl have posed serious challenges to the decision makers in the city planning and management process involving plethora of issues like infrastructure development, traffic congestion, and basic amenities (electricity, water, and sanitation), etc. (Kulkarni and Ramachandra, 2006). Apart from this, major implications of urbanisation are:

• Loss of wetlands and green spaces:  Urbanisation has telling influences on the natural resources such as decline in green spaces (vegetation) including wetlands and / or depleting groundwater table (Ramachandra and Kumar 2008).

• Floods: Common consequences of urban development are increased peak discharge and an increased frequency of floods as land that was converted from fields or woodlands to roads and parking lots loses its ability to absorb rainfall. Conversion of water bodies to residential layouts has compounded the problem by removing the interconnectivities in an undulating terrain. Encroachment of natural drains, alteration of topography involving the construction of high-rise buildings, removal of vegetative cover, reclamation of wetlands are the prime reasons for frequent flooding even during normal rainfall post 2000 (Ramachandra et al., 2012a).

• Decline in groundwater table: Studies reveal the removal of water bodies has led to the decline in water table. Water table has declined to 300 m from 28 m over a period of 20 years after the reclamation of lake with its catchment for commercial activities. In addition, groundwater table in intensely urbanized area such as Whitefield, etc. has now dropped to 400 to 500m (Ramachandra et al., 2012a).

• Heat island: Surface and atmospheric temperatures are increased by anthropogenic heat discharge due to energy consumption, increased land surface coverage by artificial materials having high heat capacities and conductivities, and the associated decreases in vegetation and water pervious surfaces, which reduce surface temperature through evapotranspiration (Ramachandra and Kumar, 2009).

• Increased carbon footprint: Due to the adoption of inappropriate building architecture, the consumption of electricity has increased in certain corporation wards drastically. The building design conducive to tropical climate would have reduced the dependence on electricity. Higher energy consumption, enhanced pollution levels due to the increase of private vehicles, traffic bottlenecks have contributed to carbon emissions significantly (Ramachandra and Shwetmala, 2012). Apart from these, mismanagement of solid and liquid wastes has aggravated the situation.