Conclusion

The analyses of the state and transitions of the landscape help in understanding LULC dynamics, which in turn helps in the sustainable management of natural resources. Prudent natural resource management requires a synoptic ecosystem approach, accounting for natural variability as well as anthropogenic activities. Landscape management planning and the role of governance have become crucial with increasing population pressure on land resources and urbanization. Arresting the deforestation process or enhancing forest cover is essential to mitigate climate change impacts. The study region being ecologically sensitive is undergoing large-scale land cover changes due to unplanned and senseless urbanization processes in Bangalore because of fragmented and uncoordinated governance. The conservation of an ecologically vital BNP is crucial for the survival of Bangaloreans and global population as BNP has been helping in sequestering carbon (emissions) and moderating climate and wide array of flora of medicinal importance. Land use land cover (LULC) analyses through temporal RS data from 1973 to 2015 reveal that the region has lost moist deciduous cover from

26.1 per cent to 13.8 per cent and that there has been an increase in horticulture, from 8.5 per cent to 11 per cent. Urban sprawl or dispersed growth in the region is due to illegal housing projects and industrial projects accounting to 5,462 ha (built-up area). The visualization of likely land uses in 2027 through the CA-Markov modelling framework shows the loss of natural forest cover from 41.38 per cent to 35.59 per cent with a spurt in urban pockets from 4.49 per cent to 9.62 per cent. This highlights the need for sensible policy interventions by promoting native species to rehabilitate degraded lands, strict monitoring, increasing community awareness and stringent implementation to protect BNP, the repository of unique flora and fauna with biological, social, hydrological and ecological significance.

Recommendations/Suggestions

Millions of hectares of tropical forests are being converted into agricultural fields and pastures every year, threatening many species with extinction. Vegetation succession on lands abandoned after human use often brought back natural forests but not the primary forests that were lost. At the same time there were patches of original forests enmeshed amidst secondary forests or in the midst of human habitations, often preserved by communities. While conceding the need to adopt more sophisticated experimental designs in the future, this study, so far, has indicated strongly the need for adoption of holistic ecosystem management of the ecologically fragile regions. The premium should be on conservation of the remaining native forests, which are vital for the perenniality (the availability of water during all seasons) of water bodies. There still is a chance to restore the lost natural forests with endemic flora and fauna by

appropriate management. The natural forests in BNP are more fragile and prone to losing their endemic biodiversity. These forests also are associated with high watershed value and perform considerable ecosystem services. Therefore, studies need to be undertaken to identify these forests and demarcate them for special protection by the state or in collaboration with local communities. Suggestions for the conservation of forests are as follows.

  • Ecosystems through the establishment of long-term monitoring ecological plots must be monitored, involving research scholars from education institu- tions and the network of students and teachers from schools and colleges in the district.
  • Local forest dwelling communities must be involved in raising plant nurseries of native species and also the management and maintenance of the afforested regions.
  • Open areas and hill tops have to be planted with native species which provide NTFPs and fruits to dependent species.
  • Provisions have to be made to provide fuel wood to villagers regularly. The collection of fuel wood and poles must be discontinued for effective regenera- tion in the shrub layer.
  • The collection of NTFPs has to be effectively moni- tored for non-destructive collection.
  • Trenches and fencing can be undertaken in more human-populated areas to protect forests from graz- ing and encroachment.
  • There should be restrictions on environmentally harmful activities such as mining (granite, sand, etc.).
  • The physical and biological integrity of BNP buffer regions has to be maintained with restrictions on locating large-scale industries, housing and com- mercial layouts and raising monoculture plantations of exotic species.
  • There has to be restrictions on inappropriate crops and inefficient water management.
  • Removal of bottlenecks along the wild animal movement path and enriching animal path regions with fodder and fruit crops as well as water bodies are important.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to (a) the Natural Resources Data Management System (NRDMS) division, the Ministry of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India; (b) the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Government of India; and (c) the Indian Institute of Science for their sustained financial and infrastructure support. We thank Dr Sunil Panwar, Deputy Conservator of Forest (DCF), Bannerghatta National Park, Karnataka Forest Department, for entrusting the study and seeing to all necessary arrangements during our field research. We are

grateful to Mr Vishnu Narain and Rama Krishna (RK) Mission, Shivanahalli, for arranging local logistics.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, author- ship and/or publication of this article.