Abstract
Introduction
Seaweed resources in West Coast of Karnataka
Acknowledgement
References
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<p>iframes are not supported by your browser.</p> <p align="justify"><span class="style15">Introduction</span></p> <p align="justify">Rio Earth Summit in 1992 witnessed the beginning of the international political responses and adoption of the UN Framework on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which aimed at stabilising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs) to avoid dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Recent conference COP21 (http://www.cop21paris.org) unanimously agreed to restrict the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and also make efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C by reducing the dependence on fossil fuels and cutting the greenhouse gas emissions. This has given impetus to the exploration of viable renewable energy alternatives to meet the energy demand of the burgeoning population. Alternative sustainable energy sources are wind solar, geothermal, hydroelectric, biomass and biofuel (Ghadiryanfar et.al,2016). </p> <p align="justify">Earlier attempts in this regard were the manufacture of biodiesel and pure plant oil derived from sugarcane, corn, soybean, potato, wheat or sugar beet (first generation biofuel), which proved to be unsustainable due to the competition with human food resources. This conflict, led to new attempts on biofuel derived from lingo-cellulosic biomass (second generation biofuel). This involved direct and indirect land use changes with the energy crop cultivation inducing a significantly high carbon debt and higher water consumption (Dominguez-Faus. et.al, 2009). Conflict with land for cultivation of biofuel feedstock, led to the exploration of viable alternatives focusing on algal biofuels (third generation biofuels). </p> <div align="center"> <table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="558"> <tr> <td width="558" colspan="3" valign="top"><br /> <strong>Table 1. Comparison of productivities of lignocellulosic biomass and seaweeds</strong></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="210" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Biomass</strong></p></td> <td width="233" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Productivity dry g/(m2·year)]</strong></p></td> <td width="115" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="443" colspan="2" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong> Lignocellulosic biomass</strong><strong> </strong></p></td> <td width="115" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="210" valign="top"><p align="center">Switchgrass</p></td> <td width="233" valign="top"><p align="center">560–2,240</p></td> <td width="115" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="210" valign="top"><p align="center">Corn stover</p></td> <td width="233" valign="top"><p align="center">180–790</p></td> <td width="115" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="210" valign="top"><p align="center">Eucalyptus</p></td> <td width="233" valign="top"><p align="center">1,000–2,000</p></td> <td width="115" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="210" valign="top"><p align="center">Poplar</p></td> <td width="233" valign="top"><p align="center">300–612.5</p></td> <td width="115" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="210" valign="top"><p align="center">Willow</p></td> <td width="233" valign="top"><p align="center">46–2,700</p></td> <td width="115" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="210" valign="top"><p align="center">Switchgrass</p></td> <td width="233" valign="top"><p align="center">560–2,240</p></td> <td width="115" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="558" colspan="3" valign="top"><p><strong> Seaweeds</strong></p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="210" valign="top"><p align="center">Green seaweeds</p></td> <td width="348" colspan="2" valign="top"><p> 7,100</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="210" valign="top"><p align="center">Brown seaweeds</p></td> <td width="348" colspan="2" valign="top"><p> 3,300–11,300</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="210" valign="top"><p align="center">Red seaweeds</p></td> <td width="348" colspan="2" valign="top"><p> 3,300–11,300</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="558" colspan="3" valign="top"><p><em>Sources: </em>Yanagisawa, et al 2011; Ramachandra et al, 2009</p></td> </tr> </table> <br /> </div> <p align="justify">Algal feedstock being carbon neutral has proved to be a very promising renewable resource for sustainable energy production. Algae fixes the greenhouse gas (CO2) and have higher photosynthetic efficiency (6-8%) compared to any terrestrial biomass (1.8-2.2%) (Ramachandra et al., 2009; Aresta, 2005; FAO,1997). Also, algae feedstock can be grown in fresh as well as marine waters which reduces the need for higher water consumption. Micro algae grown in marine and freshwater ecosystems and macro algae grown in estuaries have proved to be beneficial feedstock for biofuel production. Microalgae grown in marine ecosystem (with higher salinity and silica) accumulate lipid, while macro-algae, which are multicellular with plant like characteristics are rich in carbohydrate and net energy (net energy of 11,000 MJ/t dry algae; Aitken et al.,2014 ) and are aptly suited for bioethanol conversion (Jin et al.,2013).</p> <p align="justify">Macro-algae or seaweeds have higher potential to produce sustainable bioenergy and biomaterials and do not require land or freshwater for their cultivation. (Lobban et.al., 1985). Macro-algae are currently used for hydrocolloids, fertilizers and to some extent as animal feed (Bixler and Prose, 2011; McHugh,2003). Despite all these environmental and economic merits of macroalgae, challenges are experienced during extraction of biofuel as macro-algae have unique carbohydrate architecture, distinctively different from terrestrial biomass (Roseijadi et al., 2010; sze, 1993). Though macro-algae are ideally suited for biofuel such as biogas, bioethanol, etc., attempts towards economically efficient technological solutions of biofuel production are still at infancy (Bastianoni S et al., 2008). Marine macro-algae are broadly classified as (i) brown algae (Phaeophyceae), (ii) red algae (Rhodophyceae), and (ii) green algae (Chlorophyceae). Table 2 lists number of species and characteristics, which are distinctly different with regard to their photosynthetic reserve and cell-wall polysaccharides. Abiotic parameters of habitat (namely light, temperature, salinity, nutrient, pollution, water motion, etc.) play a vital role in algae’s growth, pigment and also other chemical constituents. Macro-algae are vertically distributed from the upper zone (close to the sea surface) to lower sub-littoral zone to optimally use natural light and the pigment absorb selectively light at specific wavelength (Guiry 2012).</p> <div align="center"> <table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="627"> <tr> <td width="627" colspan="4" valign="top"><p><strong>Table 2. Characteristics of Green, Red , and Brown seaweed</strong></p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="116" valign="top"><p><strong> </strong></p></td> <td width="155" valign="top"><p><strong>Chlorophyta</strong></p></td> <td width="179" valign="top"><p><strong>Rhodophyta</strong></p></td> <td width="177" valign="top"><p><strong>Phaeophyta</strong></p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="116" valign="top"><p><strong>Number of species recorded</strong></p></td> <td width="155" valign="top"><p>6032a<strong> </strong></p></td> <td width="179" valign="top"><p>7105b</p></td> <td width="177" valign="top"><p>2039c</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="116" valign="top"><p><strong>Photosynthetic pigment</strong></p></td> <td width="155" valign="top"><p>chlorophyll <em>a,</em> chlorophyll <em>b,</em> carotin, xanthophyll<strong> </strong></p></td> <td width="179" valign="top"><p>Phycoerythrin </p></td> <td width="177" valign="top"><p>Fucoxanthin</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="116" valign="top"><p><strong>Habitat</strong></p></td> <td width="155" valign="top"><p>Freshwater and Marine</p></td> <td width="179" valign="top"><p>Strictly marine<strong> </strong></p></td> <td width="177" valign="top"><p>Strictly marine</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="116" valign="top"><p><strong>Reproduction</strong></p></td> <td width="155" valign="top"><p>Asexual and sexual</p></td> <td width="179" valign="top"><p>Asexual and Sexual</p></td> <td width="177" valign="top"><p>Asexual and sexual</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="116" valign="top"><p><strong>Photosynthetic reserve*</strong></p></td> <td width="155" valign="top"><p>Chlorophyta accumulates starch as their photosynthetic reserve.<strong> </strong></p></td> <td width="179" valign="top"><p>Carbohydrate reserves of red algae are floridean starch (intermediate between true starch and dextrin)<strong> </strong></p></td> <td width="177" valign="top"><p>Carbohydrate reserve is called laminarin and mannitol(hexahydride alcohol)</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="627" colspan="4" valign="top"><p><strong><em>Source</em></strong><em>:</em> a A. Pascher, 1914; b Algaebase.org; c Kjellman, 1891 *Smith,1938 <strong> </strong></p></td> </tr> </table> </div> <div align="justify"><strong>Chemical composition of Macroalgae: </strong>Chemical composition of macro-algae include lower contents of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and higher contents of nitrogen and sulfur compared than that of land-based, lignocellulosic biomass. Macroalgae have complex carbohydrates, consist of various neutral sugar and sugar acids which are also found in terrestrial plants. Along with these sugars, macro algae also contains acidic (phycocolloids) half ester sulphate groups attached to hydroxyl group of sugar. These sugars have identical chemical constituents with different spatial arrangements. Linkage of these sugars gives rise to vast number of polysaccharides with different shapes and different properties. These sugars are food reserves and constituents of cell walls and exists as mucilage or gels.</div> </ol> <p> </p> <div align="justify"><strong>Biofuel from Macroalgae: </strong>Production of<strong> </strong>Bioethanol<strong> </strong>from macroalgae involves (i) pre treatment (maceration, etc.), (ii) breaking polysaccharide into simple sugar (reducing sugar) through acid or enzyme hydrolysis and (iii) fermentation, illustrated in Figure 1. Breaking down of polysaccharide into simple sugar (reducing sugar) involves treating the biomass with acid or enzyme hydrolysis. Diluted-acid hydrolysis is a typical physiochemical method to treat raw algal biomass with 0.3-0.9N H2SO4 at 100-140oC. (Meinita et al.,2012; Park et al., 2012). However, acid concentration and hydrolysis time influences the yield of reducing sugars. Enzymes such as cellulase and cellobiase (Ge et al., 2011; Yanagisawa et al., 2011), or macro algae specific enzymes such as laminarinase and agarase have been used and most of these enzymes showed low hydrolysis efficiency (Adams et al., 2011). Hence, for effective hydrolysis to reduce sugars, both chemical and enzymatic hydrolyses have been employed (Adams et al., 2011; Ge et al., 2011; Jang et al., 2012)</div> </li> </ol> </ol> <p align="justify">Acid hydrolysis involves cleaving the polysaccharide’s glyosidic bond to release monosaccharides. But, acid hydrolysis decomposition also releases undesirable compounds, such as Fufural, 5-hydroxymethylfufural(HMF), levulinic acid and caffeic acid, which inhibit subsequent fermentation. These compounds are derived from xylose and galactose in macroalgal biomass, can be detoxified using activated charcoal treatments (Meinita et al., 2012). Metal contents in macroalgal biomass are (0.5-11% wt) higher than terrestrial biomass (1-1.5% wt) (Lee and Lee, 2012; Ross et al., 2008), which inhibits microbial fermentation during pretreatment. In contrast to this, during enzyme hydrolysis there is no undesirable compounds as enzyme activity is specific to type of polysaccharides (Nguyen et al., 2009). Simple sugar resulting from hydrolysis is subjected to fermentation using various organisms particularly yeasts microorganisms, to produce ethanol. In order to produce bioethanol cost-effective manner, efforts are in progress to screen microorganisms (Table 4) that possess the ability to directly convert polysaccharides (including glucans) into ethanol. Table 4 also lists species wise quantum of ethanol production, while Table 5 lists microorganisms (to convert sugar into ethanol) for different macro algae.</p> <p> </p> <div align="center"> <table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <tr> <td width="623" colspan="3" valign="top"><p><strong>Table 3. Seaweed polysaccharides</strong></p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="176" valign="top"><p><strong>Seaweeds</strong></p></td> <td width="232" valign="top"><p><strong>Polysaccharides/phycocolloids</strong></p></td> <td width="216" valign="top"><p><strong>Monosaccharides</strong></p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="176" valign="top"><p>Chlorophyceae (Green)</p></td> <td width="232" valign="top"><p>Amylose, amylopectin<br /> Cellulose, complex hemicellulose<br /> Glucomannans, Mannans<br /> Pectin, sulfated mucilages (glucuronoxylorhamnans)<br /> Xylans</p></td> <td width="216" valign="top"><p>Glucose, Mannose, Rhamnose, Xylose, Uronic acid, Glucuronic acid</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="176" valign="top"><p>Rhodophyceae(Red)</p></td> <td width="232" valign="top"><p>Agars, agaroids<br /> Carrageenans, cellulose<br /> Mannans, Xylans, rhodymenan</p></td> <td width="216" valign="top"><p>Glucose, galactose, Agarose</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="176" valign="top"><p>Phaeophyceae(Brown)</p></td> <td width="232" valign="top"><p>Alginates<br /> cellulose<br /> complex sulfated heteroglucans<br /> Fucose containing glycans<br /> Fucoidans<br /> Glucuronoxylofucans<br /> Laminarans</p></td> <td width="216" valign="top"><p>Glucose ,galactose, fucose, xylose, uronic acid, mannuronic acid, Guluronic acid</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="408" colspan="2" valign="top"><p>Source: Sudhakar,2013 ;<strong></strong>Percival et.al, 1967</p></td> <td width="216" valign="top"><p> </p></td> </tr> </table> </div> <div align="center"> </p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p><img src="f1.png" alt="" width="367" height="368" /></p> <p>Figure 1: Schematic representation of bioethanol production from macro algae or seaweed.</p> <p> </p> <div align="center"> <table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="623"> <tr> <td width="623" colspan="5" valign="top"><p align="center"><strong>Table 4. </strong>Yield and concentration of sugar and ethanol produced by hydrolysis of Macro algae<strong></strong></p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="73" valign="top"><p><strong>Seaweed group</strong></p></td> <td width="173" valign="top"><p><strong>Seaweed species</strong></p></td> <td width="112" valign="top"><p><strong>Hydrolysis</strong></p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p><strong>Fermentation</strong></p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p><strong>Ethanol concentration (g/L)</strong></p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="73" rowspan="4" valign="top"><p><strong>Red algae</strong></p></td> <td width="173" valign="top"><p><em>Gelidium amansii</em></p></td> <td width="112" valign="top"><p>Acid +enzyme</p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p><em>Scheffersomyces stipites</em></p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p>20.5g/l of sugar</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="173" valign="top"><p><em>Palmaria palmata</em></p></td> <td width="112" valign="top"><p>Acid</p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p><em>S. cerevisiae</em></p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p>17.3 mg/g of sugar</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="173" valign="top"><p><em>Kappaphycus alvarezii</em></p></td> <td width="112" valign="top"><p>Acid</p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p>S. cerevisiae</p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p>64.3g/l of sugar</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="173" valign="top"><p><em>Gracillaria verrucosa</em></p></td> <td width="112" valign="top"><p>Acid+enzyme</p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p><em>S. cerevisiae</em></p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p>0.43g/g of sugar</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="73" rowspan="5" valign="top"><p><strong>Green algae</strong></p></td> <td width="173" rowspan="2" valign="top"><p><em>Ulva pertusa</em></p></td> <td width="112" valign="top"><p>Enzyme</p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p><em>S</em>. <em>cerevisiae</em></p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p>18.5</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="112" valign="top"><p>Acid +enzyme</p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p><em>S</em>. <em>cerevisiae</em></p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p>27.5</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="173" valign="top"><p><em>Enetromorpha instestinalis</em></p></td> <td width="112" valign="top"><p>Enzyme </p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p>20.1 g/L Sugar yield</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="173" valign="top"><p><em>Ulva fasciata</em></p></td> <td width="112" valign="top"><p>Acid +enzyme</p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p><em>S.cerevisiae </em>MTCC No.180</p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p>0.45 g/g</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="173" valign="top"><p><em>Ulva reticulate</em></p></td> <td width="112" valign="top"><p>Enzyme</p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p><em>S.cerevisiae</em> WL P099</p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p>90 L/t dried biomass</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="73" rowspan="11" valign="top"><p><strong>Brown algae</strong></p></td> <td width="173" valign="top"><p><em>Sargassum</em><br /> <em>sagamianum</em></p></td> <td width="112" valign="top"><p>Thermal hydrolysis</p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p><em>Pichia Stpitis</em> <br /> CBS 7126</p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p>0.386g/g reducing sugar</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="173" rowspan="2" valign="top"><p><em>Undaria pinnatifida </em></p></td> <td width="112" valign="top"><p>Thermal acid hydrolysis</p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p><em>Pichia angophorae</em><br /> KCTC 17574</p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p>9.42 g/L</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="112" valign="top"><p>Acid +<br /> enzymatic</p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p><em>Pichia angophorae</em><br /> KCTC 17574</p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p>12.98 g/L</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="173" rowspan="3" valign="top"><p><em>Saccharina japonica</em></p></td> <td width="112" valign="top"><p>Acid +<br /> enzymatic</p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p><em>Saccharomyces</em><br /> <em>cerevisiae </em>DK 410362</p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p>6.65 g/L</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="112" valign="top"><p>Thermal acid hydrolysis</p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p><em>Pichia angophorae</em><br /> KCTC 17574</p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p>0.169 g/g<br /> reducing sugar</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="112" valign="top"><p>Engineered<br /> microbial<br /> enzyme</p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p>Engineered BAL1611</p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p>0.41 g/g<br /> reducing sugar</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="173" valign="top"><p><em>Laminaria digitata</em></p></td> <td width="112" valign="top"><p>Shredding and enzymatic</p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p><em>Pichia angophorae</em></p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p>167 mL/kg algae</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="173" rowspan="3" valign="top"><p><em>Laminaria japonica</em></p></td> <td width="112" valign="top"><p>Thermal<br /> liquefaction</p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p><em>Pichia stipitis</em><br /> KCTC7228</p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p>2.9 g/L using<br /> 100 g/L algae</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="112" valign="top"><p>Acid +enzymatic</p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p>Ethanologenic strain<br /> <em>E. coli </em>KO11</p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p>0.41 g/g<br /> reducing sugar</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="112" valign="top"><p>Acid +<br /> enzymatic</p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p><em>Saccharomyces</em><br /> <em>cerevisiae</em></p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p>143 mL/kg<br /> floating<br /> residues</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="173" valign="top"><p><em>Sargassum</em><br /> <em>sagamianum</em></p></td> <td width="112" valign="top"><p>Thermal<br /> liquefaction</p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p><em>Pichia stipitis </em>CBS<br /> 7126</p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p>0.43–0.44 g/g<br /> reducing sugar</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="73" rowspan="2" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="173" valign="top"><p><em>Saccharina</em><br /> <em>latissima</em></p></td> <td width="112" valign="top"><p>Shredding<br /> and<br /> enzymatic</p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p><em>Saccharomyces</em><br /> <em>cerevisiae</em><br /> Ethanol red yeast</p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p>0.45% (v/v)</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="173" valign="top"><p><em>Dilphus okamurae</em></p></td> <td width="112" valign="top"><p>Enzymatic</p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p><em>Mixture of B5201 (Lactobacillus),Y5201 (Debaryomyces I) and Y5206 (Candida I)</em></p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p>0.04g 100 m/l<br /> 0.03g 100m/l</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="73" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="173" valign="top"><p><em>Sargassum fulvellum</em></p></td> <td width="112" valign="top"><p>Acid+ enzymatic</p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p>0.0596<br /> 0.0215</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="73" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="173" valign="top"><p><em>Alaria crassifolia</em></p></td> <td width="112" valign="top"><p>Enzymatic</p></td> <td width="157" valign="top"><p><em> </em></p></td> <td width="109" valign="top"><p>0.244</p></td> </tr> </table> </div> <p> </p> <div align="center"> <table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="654"> <tr> <td width="654" colspan="4" valign="top"><p><strong>Table 5. Macro algal biomass wise polysaccharides, sugars and organisms (to convert sugars into ethanol)</strong></p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="101" valign="top"><p><strong>Biomass</strong></p></td> <td width="124" valign="top"><p><strong>Polysaccharides</strong></p></td> <td width="126" valign="top"><p><strong>Sugar</strong></p></td> <td width="303" valign="top"><p><strong>Organisms </strong></p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="101" valign="top"><p>Green seaweeds</p></td> <td width="124" valign="top"><p>Glucan</p></td> <td width="126" valign="top"><p>Glucose</p></td> <td width="303" valign="top"><p><em>S.cerevisiae</em></p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="101" rowspan="5" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="124" rowspan="5" valign="top"><p>Ulvan</p></td> <td width="126" rowspan="4" valign="top"><p>Xylose</p></td> <td width="303" valign="top"><p>Xylose-fermenting yeast</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="303" valign="top"><p>Xylose-utilizing <em>S.cerevisiae</em></p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="303" valign="top"><p>Ethanologenic <em>E.coli</em></p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="303" valign="top"><p><em>Clostridium beijerinckii, Clostridium</em><br /> <em>Saccharoperbutylacetonicum</em></p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="126" valign="top"><p>Glucuronic acid</p></td> <td width="303" valign="top"><p><em>P.tannophilus</em><br /> Ethanologenic E.coli</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="101" rowspan="10" valign="top"><p>Brown seaweeds</p></td> <td width="124" rowspan="8" valign="top"><p>Glucan</p></td> <td width="126" rowspan="4" valign="top"><p>Glucose</p></td> <td width="303" valign="top"><p><em>S. cerevisiae</em></p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="303" valign="top"><p><em>Pichia angophorae</em></p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="303" valign="top"><p>Ethanologenic E.coli KO11</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="303" valign="top"><p>Ethanologenic E.coli BAL 1611</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="126" rowspan="4" valign="top"><p>Mannitol</p></td> <td width="303" valign="top"><p><em>Zymobacter palmae</em></p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="303" valign="top"><p><em>Pichia angophorae</em></p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="303" valign="top"><p>Ethanologenic <em>E.coli</em> KO11 developed by integrating <em>zymomonas mobilis</em> ethanol production genes into the pflB gene </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="303" valign="top"><p>Ethanologenic <em>E. coli</em> BAL1611</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="124" rowspan="2" valign="top"><p>Alginate</p></td> <td width="126" rowspan="2" valign="top"><p>Uronic acid</p></td> <td width="303" valign="top"><p>Ethanologenic <em>sphingomonas sp.</em> A1</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="303" valign="top"><p>Ethanologenic E coli BAL BAL 1611</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="101" valign="top"><p>Red seaweeds</p></td> <td width="124" valign="top"><p>Glucan</p></td> <td width="126" valign="top"><p>Glucose</p></td> <td width="303" valign="top"><p><em>S. cerevisiae</em></p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="101" rowspan="2" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="124" rowspan="2" valign="top"><p>Agar, Carrageenan</p></td> <td width="126" valign="top"><p>Galactose</p></td> <td width="303" valign="top"><p><em>S.cerevisiae,</em> <em>Brettanomyces custersii </em>KCTC 18154P</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="126" valign="top"><p>3,6-anhyrdogalactose</p></td> <td width="303" valign="top"><p>NR</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="654" colspan="4"><p><strong>Engineered strain</strong></p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="101" valign="top"><p>Red seaweed</p></td> <td width="124" valign="top"><p>Agar ,carrageenan</p></td> <td width="126" valign="top"><p>Galactose, or simultaneous co-fermentation<br /> of galactose and cellobiase</p></td> <td width="303" valign="top"><p><em>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</em> (engineered<br /> for improved galactose fermentation)</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="101" valign="top"><p>Brown seaweed</p></td> <td width="124" valign="top"><p>Glucan</p></td> <td width="126" valign="top"><p>Glucose, mannitol</p></td> <td width="303" valign="top"><p><em>Escherichia coli</em> (engineered for alginate<br /> metabolism)</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="101" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="124" valign="top"><p>Alginate </p></td> <td width="126" valign="top"><p>Glucose, mannitol and alginate</p></td> <td width="303" valign="top"><p><em>Escherichia coli</em> KO11</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="654" colspan="4" valign="top"><p><strong>Source:</strong>Yanagisawa,2013; Kim N.J. et al.,2011<strong></strong></p></td> </tr> </table> <p> </p> </div> <div align="justify"> <p><strong>Scope for value added products: </strong>In India, seaweeds grow abundantly in south coast of Tamil Nadu, Gujarat coast, Lakshadweep and Andaman-Nicobar Islands. Luxuriant growth of seaweeds is also found at Mumbai, Ratnagiri, Goa, Karwar, Varkala, Vizhinjam, Vishakapatnam, Pulicat lake and Chilka Lake. Kaliaperumal, et al., 1992; 1996, recorded about 271 genera and 1053 species of marine algae belonging to four groups of algae namely Chlorophyacea, Phaeophyceae, Rhodophyceae and Cyanophycease from Indian waters. Seaweeds as a food source is used seldom in India, but freshly collected and cast ashore seaweeds are used as manure for coconut plantation either directly or in the form of compost in coastal areas of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Seaweed manure has been found superior to farm yard manure. It is seen that plants absorb, high amount of water soluble potash, other minerals and trace elements present in seaweeds which aids in controlling mineral deficiency diseases. Also the nature of soil and moisture retaining capacity is improved due to carbohydrates and other organic matter present in the marine algae. Macroalgae in India are used as raw material for manufacture of agar, alginates and liquid seaweed fertilizer. (Chennubhotla <em>et.al</em>. 1978)</p> <p><strong>2. Seaweed resources in West Coast of Karnataka</strong> </li> </ol> </p> <p align="justify">Karnataka has a coastline of about 320 km starting from Talapadi in the south to Karwar in the north. Ecology of tidal pond in Mavinahole estuarine creek, Karwar was studied in 1979 by Bopaiah and Neelakantan (1982). <strong>Table 6</strong> lists taluk-wise distribution of seaweed species in Uttara Kannada district, which are mostly confined to rocky shores. 43 species of marine algae in the littoral zone of the entire Karnataka coast was reported earlier (Agadi, 1985). NAAS (2003) reported 39 species of seaweeds from Karnataka coast, 39 species of seaweeds from Karnataka coast (Venkataraman and Wafar, 2005; Kaladharan, 2011) and Untawale <em>et al. </em>(1989) reported 65 species belonging to 42 genera from the northern Karnataka coast alone.<strong> </strong></p> <div align="center"> <table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="647"> <tr> <td width="647" colspan="6" valign="top"><br /> <strong>Table 6. Distribution of Seaweed species in Uttara Kannada district</strong></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p><strong>SEAWEED SPECIES</strong><strong> </strong></p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p><strong>KARWAR</strong><strong> </strong></p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p><strong>ANKOLA</strong></p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p><strong>KUMTA</strong></p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p><strong>HONAWAR</strong><strong> </strong></p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p><strong>BHAT*KAL</strong><strong> </strong></p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Amphiroa fragillissima (Linnaeus) Lamouroux </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Bangia autopurpurea var.fuscopurpurea (Dillwyn) C.Agardh </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"></td> <td width="67" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Caulerpa peltata J.V. Lamouroux </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Caulerpa racemosa (Forsskal) J. Agardh </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Caulerpa scalpelliformis (R.Brown ex Turner) C. Agardh </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Caulerpa sertularioides (S.G.Gmelin) M.A. Howe </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Caulerpa taxifolia (Vahl) C.Agardh </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Caulerpa verticillata J. Agardh </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Chaetomorpha linum (Muller) Kutzing </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Chaetomorpha media (C. Agardh) Kutzing </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Dictyopteris australis (Sonder) Askenasy </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Dictyota bartayresiana Lamouroux </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Dictyota dichotoma (Hudson) Lamouroux </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Enteromorpha clathrata (Roth) J.Ag </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"></td> <td width="67" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Enteromorpha flexuosa (Wulf) J.Ag. </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Enteromorpha intestinalis (Linnaeus) Nees </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Gelidium micropterum Kutzing </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Gelidium pusillum (Stackhouse) Le Jollis </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"></td> <td width="67" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Grateloupia filicina (Wulf.) Ag. </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Grateloupia indica Borgesen </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Grateloupia lithophila Borgesen. </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Gracilaria corticata J. Agardh </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Hypnea valentiae (Turner) Montagne </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Jania adherence Lamouroux </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"></td> <td width="67" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Laurencia cartilaginea Yamada </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Laurencia obtusa (Hudson) Lamouroux </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"></td> <td width="67" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Laurencia papillosa (C. Agardh) Greville </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Padina gymnospora (Kutzing ) Sonder </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Padina tetrastromatica Hauck </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Porphyra vietnamensis T.tanaka & Dham-Hoang Ho </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Sphacelaria furcigera Kuetz </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Spatoglossum asperum J. Agardh </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Sargassum cinereum J. Agardh </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Sargassum ilicifolium (Turner) C. Agardh </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Sargassum polycystum C.Aga </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Sargassum tenerrimum J. Agar </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Sargassum wightii Greville </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Stoechospermum marginatum (C. Agardh) Kutzing </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Ulva fasciata Delile </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"></td> <td width="67" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Ulva lactuca Linnaeus </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+</p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> <td width="67" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="281" valign="top"><p>Ulva rigida C. Agardh </p></td> <td width="71" valign="top"></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"><p align="center"> </p></td> <td width="76" valign="top"></td> <td width="67" valign="top"><p align="center">+ </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="647" colspan="6" valign="top"><p><strong>Source: </strong>Agadi, 1985;<strong> </strong>Untawale <em>et al., </em>1989; NAAS 2003, Venkataraman and Wafar, 2005; Kaladharan, 2011; <strong>* </strong>http://www.niobioinformatics.in/seaweed/index.htm<strong> </strong></p></td> </tr> </table> </div> <p align="justify">Uttara Kannada district is endowed with four productive estuaries namely Kali estuary in Karwar, Gangawali estuary in Ankola, Aghanashini estuary in Kumta, Sharavathi estuary in Honnavar. Aghanashini estuary situated in Kumta taluk on the rive Aghanashini, this estuarine region extends from the river mouth to about 25 km upstream. The Aghanashini estuary has several mudflats and small islands and network of drainage canals called kodis. Farmers of this region traditionally cultivated a variety of salt tolerant rice- “<em>kagga” </em>in large expanses of the reclaimed backwaters, called <em>gaznis, </em>also known as Kharlands or Khajans. In these <em>gazni</em> land, farmers practice alternate rice cultivation and prawn filtration. There are few abandoned <em>gazni</em> in these estuarine region which could serve as a potential site for seaweed cultivation. (Suryanath ,1985). <strong>Table 7</strong> lists the distribution of seaweeds along west Coast of India with the wide scope for biofuel production. There is a potential to develop large scale cultivation of seaweeds in west coast of India with optimization of existing labour intensive cultivation and harvesting technologies to reduce cost and energy demand. Extraction of value added products from macro algal biomass along with bioethanol production, further boosts the livelihood of local people while meeting the energy demand.<strong></strong></p> <div align="center"> <table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="630"> <tr> <td width="630" colspan="6" valign="top"><br /> <strong>Table 7: Distribution of potential Seaweeds along West Coast of India as a feedstock for Biofuel production</strong></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><strong>SEAWEED</strong></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p><strong>GUJARAT</strong></p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p><strong>MAHARASHTRA</strong></p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p><strong>GOA</strong></p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p><strong>KAR</strong></p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"><p><strong>KER</strong></p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Amphiroa fragillissima </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p> +</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Acanthophora specifera</em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Bangia fuscopurpurea </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Bryopsis plumosa </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Caulerpa peltata </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+ </p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Caulerpa racemosa </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p> +</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Caulerpa scalpelliformis </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Caulerpa sertularioides </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Caulerpa taxifolia </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p> +</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Caulerpa verticillata </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Chaetomorpha linum </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Chaetomorpha media </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Cheilosporum spectabile </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Cladophora fascicularis</em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"></td> <td width="60" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Dictyopteris australis</em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+ </p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Dictyota bartayresiana</em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Dictyota dichotoma </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+ </p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Enteromorpha clathrata </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p> +</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Enteromorpha flexuosa</em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Enteromorpha intestinalis </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Gelidium micropterum </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Gelidium pusillum </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Grateloupia filicina </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+ </p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Grateloupia indica </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Grateloupia lithophila </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+ </p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Gracilaria corticata </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+ </p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Gracilaria verrucosa</em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"><p> </p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Hypnea musciformis</em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Hypnea pannosa </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Hypnea valentiae </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+ </p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Jania adherence</em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+ </p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Laurencia cartilaginea </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+ </p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Laurencia obtusa </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Laurencia papillosa </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+ </p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Padina gymnospora </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+ </p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Padina tetrastromatica </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Porphyra vietnamensis </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Sphacelaria furcigera </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Spatoglossum asperum </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Sargassum cinereum </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+ </p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Sargassum ilicifolium</em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+ </p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Sargassum polycystum </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+ </p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Sargassum tenerrimum </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+ </p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Sargassum wightii </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p> +</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Stoechospermum marginatum </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Ulva fasciata </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Ulva lactuca</em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Ulva reticulata </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="186" valign="top"><p><em>Ulva rigida </em></p></td> <td width="96" valign="top"><p>+</p></td> <td width="144" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="66" valign="top"><p> </p></td> <td width="78" valign="top"><p>+ </p></td> <td width="60" valign="top"></td> </tr> <tr> <td width="630" colspan="6" valign="top"><p><strong>Source</strong>: http://www.niobioinformatics.in/seaweed/index.htm <strong></strong></p></td> </tr> </table> <p> </p> </div> <div align="justify"><strong>3. Prospects of Bioethanol from Macroalgae</strong></div> </li> </ol> <p align="justify">Considerable work has been carried out with respect to commercial production of agar and algin from macro algae in India. Different microorganisms are being employed for effective conversion of seaweed polysaccharides as well as of fermentation processes, in order to commercialize macroalgae based fuels, a priority needs to be put on identifying microorganisms that metabolizes macroalgal carbohydrates. Alginate and Ulvan are macroalgae specific carbohydrate which are not readily metabolized by commercially applied fermenting microorganisms such as saccharomyces cerevisiae (Wegeberg and Felby,2010). To overcome these constraints, macroalgae specific enzymes were developed to hydrolyze macroalgal carbohydrates (Erasmus et al., 1997; Jang et al., 2012). An attempt was made to cultivate red algae <em>Kappaphycus alvarezii </em>alongMandapam coast and demonstrated commercial scale production of bioethanol. Over the past twenty years, large scale cultivation of carrageenophytes (Khambhaty, 2012). In India, edible seaweeds such as <em>Gracillaria edulis, Caulerpa spp., Poryphyra etc. </em>can be cultivated along with biofuel feedstock seaweeds, in estuarine areas and coastal inundated waters. Appropriate technology for large scale seaweed cultivation is imperative to meet the growing energy demand. Implementing seaweed cultivation combined with post harvesting processing units could bring economic returns to seaweed cultivators.</p>
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