1. Introduction

Lack of information on the historical status and current distribution of diversity of biota across the world has been posing serious challenges in interpreting global biodiversity changes (Groombridge et al., 2002). The link between current distribution patterns and changes could be used to assess relative levels of the threat faced by the species, and detailed historical and ecological information (Wilson et al., 2004). An ideal set of data for assessing the status of biodiversity includes the distribution of species and their conservation status, the habitat characteristics of these species, and human activities affecting these habitats and their impact (Salem, 2003). To comprehensively assess species and habitat biodiversity, habitat factors (e.g., environmental factors such as climate, physiography, vegetation, soils, and geology) and species ranges (i.e., richness) must be considered. These data can be stored on a map (distribution) associated with tabular data to show attributes. The Geographic Information System (GIS) is useful for monitoring biodiversity, as it accommodates large varieties of spatial and attribute data to assess the species' information and also links it with habitat conditions. All this information is used to target surveys and monitoring schemes (Marqules & Austin, 1991)

1.1 Ecosystem

The term ecosystem (Tansley 1935) refers to the network of interactions among organisms, between organisms and their environment, that vary in size but usually encompass specific, limited spaces. An ecosystem consists of the biological community occurring in some locale and the physical and chemical factors that make up its non-living or abiotic environment. The study of ecosystems mainly consists of understanding processes that link the living or biotic, components to the non-living or abiotic components. Energy transformations and biogeochemical cycling are the main processes comprising the ecosystem ecology field. Studies of individuals are concerned chiefly with physiology, reproduction, development or behavior, and studies of populations, which usually focus on individual species' habitat and resource needs, their group behaviors, population growth, and what limits their abundance or causes extinction. Studies of communities examine how populations of many species interact with one another, such as predators and their prey or competitors that share habitat or nitch.

Two types of components define an ecosystem’s characteristics. Abiotic factors or SWATS (Soil, Water, Air, Temperature, and Sunlight). Sunlight is a significant part of abiotic conditions in an ecosystem. It is the energy that is used by green plants (which contain chlorophyll) during the process of photosynthesis. Plants absorb blue and red light during photosynthesis and as a result, do not penetrate deeply into the water. Some algae have additional pigments which can absorb other colours as well. Extremes greatly influence the distribution of plants and animals in temperature. In aquatic ecosystems, water performs many important environmental functions. Meteorology or weather conditions are considered as abiotic components such as temperature, wind velocity, solar insulation, humidity and precipitation. Climate is a prime component that determines the biome in which the ecosystem is embedded. Rainfall patterns and temperature seasonality assess the water available to the ecosystem and the general energy supply. Soil conditions affecting ecosystems are the granularity, chemistry, nutrient content, and availability. These soil conditions interact with precipitation to cause change. Air levels define how strong and sturdy the organisms are in an ecosystem, and which habitats must be in existence for them to survive. Topography also controls ecosystem processes by affecting things like micro-climate, soil development and the movement of water through a system. Compared to a hilly one, the organisms on a flat land will have different movement muscles, which evolved for forwarding propulsion (calf muscles), whilst others were used for lifting the leg (thigh muscles). The aspect is the direction that the land is facing (in relation to the sun) has its relevance to temperature, wherein, for example, an environment that faces generally away from the sun will be cooler. Abiotic factors are particularly important to new or barren or unpopulated ecosystems. This is because the abiotic factors of the unpopulated system set the stage for how well a given species will be able to thrive and reproduce there. Biotic components are living factors like Plants, animals, insects, fungi and bacteria etc. Three types of organisms live in a biotic community are producers, consumers and decomposers. The members of a biotic community are inter-dependent in that they all depend on one another for their survival. They can be further sub-divided into autotrophs (producers) and heterotrophs (consumers) that include herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, and detritivores (decomposers).

Fig.1.1.Components of Ecosystem

1.2. Functions of an Ecosystem

Ecosystem functions are a subset of ecological processes and depend on the ecosystem structures and their constituent biota, which sustain natural resources and fulfil human life (Ruchi et al., 2005). Each function results from the natural processes of the total ecological sub-system. There are four primary groups of ecosystem functions. Regulatory function relates to the capacity of natural and semi-natural ecosystems to regulate essential ecological processes and life support systems through biogeochemical cycles. Habitat functions of natural ecosystems provide refuge and a reproduction habitat to wild plants and animals, contributing to the (in situ) conservation of biological and genetic diversity and the evolutionary process. Production functions involve photosynthesis and nutrient uptake by autotrophs, which convert energy, carbon dioxide, water and nutrients into a wide variety of carbohydrate structures, which secondary producers then use to create an even larger variety of living biomass. Since most human evolution took place within an undomesticated habitat, natural ecosystems provide an essential ‘reference function’ and contribute to the maintenance of human health by providing opportunities for reflection, spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, recreation and aesthetic experience.

1.3. Types of ecosystem

An ecosystem consists of all the living and non-living things in a specific natural setting. All types of ecosystems fall into one of two categories.

1. Terrestrial Ecosystems: These are found on land and have many classification schemes developed over time. It is now generally accepted that there are six types of terrestrial ecosystems. Taigas are the world's largest terrestrial ecosystem and account for about 29% of the Earth's forests which are cold-climate forests found in the northern latitudes. The largest taiga ecosystems are found in Canada and Russia. The tundra ecosystems of the world are found primarily north of the Arctic Circle. They consist of short vegetation and essentially no trees. The soil is frozen and covered with permafrost for a large portion of the year. Forest ecosystems are classified according to their climate type. In the tropics, rainforest ecosystems contain more diverse flora and fauna than ecosystems in any other region on earth. In these warm, moisture-laden environments, trees grow tall and foliage is lush and dense, with species inhabiting the forest floor all the way up to the canopy. In temperate zones, forest ecosystems may be deciduous, coniferous or oftentimes a mixture of both, in which some trees shed their leaves each fall, while others remain evergreen year-round. Grassland ecosystems are typically found in tropical or temperate regions, although they can also exist in colder areas, as is the case with the well-known Siberian steppe. Grasslands share the common climactic characteristic of semi-aridity. Trees are sparse or nonexistent, but flowers may be interspersed with the grasses. Different types of grassland ecosystems can be found in prairies, savannas and steppes. The common defining feature among desert ecosystems is low precipitation, generally less than 25 centimeters, or 10 inches, per year. Not all deserts are hot – desert ecosystems can exist from the tropics to the Arctic, but regardless of latitude (De Groot et al., 2000)
2. Aquatic ecosystem: It is mainly categorized into lotic and lentic ecosystems consisting of streams, rivers, springs, ponds, lakes, bogs and freshwater swamps. They are subdivided into two classes: those in which the water is nearly stationary (Lentic) such as ponds and those in which the water flows (Lotic) such as rivers. Freshwater ecosystems are home to more than just fish: algae, plankton, insects, amphibians and underwater plants also inhabit them. Marine ecosystems differ from freshwater ecosystems in that they contain saltwater, which usually supports different types of species than fresh water. Marine ecosystems are the most abundant types of ecosystems in the world. They encompass the ocean floor and surface, tidal zones, estuaries, salt marshes and saltwater swamps, mangroves and coral reefs.

In an ecosystem biotic components are connected to each other. The producer synthesizes organic matter after using sunlight, this organic matter also fulfils the nutritional requirements of all types of consumers. Energy enters the biological system as light energy, or photons, is transformed into chemical energy in organic molecules by cellular processes, including photosynthesis and respiration, and ultimately is converted to heat energy. This energy is dissipated, meaning it is lost to the system as heat; once it is lost, it cannot be recycled. Energy is stored in the high-energy bonds of adenosine triphosphate or ATP. In terrestrial ecosystems, roughly 90% of the NPP is broken down by decomposers.

1.4. Ecological Habitat

Habitat is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species of animal, plant or any organism. It is the natural environment in which an organism lives, or the physical environment that surrounds (influences and is utilized by a species population). A microhabitat is often used to describe small-scale physical requirements of a particular organism or population. The monotypic habitat occurs in botanical and zoological contexts and is a component of conservation biology. Ecological Niche literally means a specific place however the ecologist uses it for the habitat along with the role a species or population plays in its ecosystem and the Grinnellian niche concept embodies the idea that the niche of a species is determined by the habitat in which it lives.

Although it seems unlikely that a single species could control all ecosystem processes, it is possible that a single group of species may. However, suppose there is a lack of overlap in the groups of species that influence different ecosystem processes. In that case, higher levels of biodiversity will be required to maintain overall ecosystem functioning. However, ecosystems are managed and conserved for multiple functions, which may require greater biodiversity. Thus, biodiversity loss affects ecosystem services and functions (Andy et al., 2007).

1.5 Biodiversity

Biodiversity is an umbrella term covering genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. The Convention on Biological Diversity (www.cbd.int) defines biodiversity as “the variability among living organisms from all sources including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems”. Ecological (Ecosystem) Diversity or the diversity of ecological complexes found in a given area, is described at three levels: biogeographical region, biotic province and biome (Groombridge et al., 2002). The Largest identified ecosystem has been the biogeographical zone; the world’s richest habitats are tropical moist forests. Although they cover only 7% of the world’s surface, these areas contain at least 50%, and possibly up to 90% of all plant and animal species. Species diversity refers to a variety of species in a region. The number of species per unit area is called species richness.

Evenness or equitability differs due to the difference in the number of individuals in an area. With an increase in area, the number of species and species diversity increase. Somehow, the number of individuals among species may differ. This may lead to differences in evenness or equitability, resulting in a diversity change (Gaston, 2000). Genetic diversity is the diversity of basic units of hereditary information (genes) passed down the generations found within a species. It refers to a variation of genes within species. Many terms, subspecies, breeds, races, varieties, and forms express the genetic diversity within a species. This diversity arises from variations in the sequence of four base pairs, which constitute the genetic code as a component of nucleic acids. The science of taxonomy and systematics involves classifying organisms according to evolutionary relationships and how closely they are related. This helps identify similarities and dissimilarities among individuals of the same kind of organism and other kinds of organisms.

The seven basic taxonomic categories are:

1. Species: A group of individual organisms with fundamental similarities and the potential to interbreed freely to produce fertile offspring – but cannot interbreed successfully with individuals from other species termed as a species.
2. Genus: It comprises a group of related species which has more characteristics in common in comparison to species of genera-such as the genus Panthera includes several species like Panthera leo (Lion), Panthera pardus (Leopard) and Panthera tigris (Tiger).
3. Family: Genera are grouped into families, which are major groups of generally similar organisms, such as Felidae, which includes all cat-like animals from domestic cats to wild lynx to tigers to cheetahs to jaguars to snow leopards.
4. Order: It is the assemblage of families which exhibit a few similar characters. The similar characters are less in number as compared to different genera included in a family, such as the order of Carnivore – which includes cats, dogs and weasels.
5. Class: This category includes related orders. For example, order Primata, comprising monkey, gorilla and gibbon, is placed in class Mammalia and order Carnivora, including animals like tigers, cats and dogs.
6. Phylum: Classes are grouped into Phyla based on the common features, and in the case of plants, classes with a few similar characters are assigned to a higher category called Division.
7. Kingdom: Kingdom is the broadest category, while species being the most specific. All animals belonging to various phyla are assigned to the highest category called Kingdom Animalia and all plants from various divisions are comprised of Kingdom Plantae.

1.6. Plant Kingdom

The phylogenetic classification system based on evolutionary relationships between the various organisms is acceptable. Plantae is categorized into five divisions. Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic, and largely aquatic organisms that occur in a variety of other habitats. The algae are divided into three main classes: Chlorophyceae (Green algae), Phaeophycea (Brown Algae) and Rhodophyceae (Red algae).    Bryophytes include the various, mosses and liverworts that are found commonly growing in moist shaded areas in the hills. These are called amphibians of Plant Kingdom because these plants can love in soil but depend on water for sexual reproduction. The pteridophytes include horsetails and ferns used for medical purposes and as soil binders. The Gymnosperms are plants in which the ovules are not closed by any ovary wall and remain exposed before and after fertilization. One of the gymnosperms, the giant redwood tree Sequoia is one of the tallest tree species. In the Angiosperms, the seeds are enclosed by fruits and occur in a wide range of habitats. The unique characterization of this division is Double Fertilization.

1.7. Animal Kingdom

All members of Animalia are multicellular, none exhibit the same pattern of cell organization. The most common phyla in kingdom Animalia are ;

(a) Arthropoda (e.g. insects)

(b) Mollusca (e.g. snails)

(c) Chordata (e.g. fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals)

(d) Platyhelminthes (e.g. tapeworms)

(e) Nematoda (i.e. unsegmented worms)

(f) Annelida (i.e. segmented worms)

(g) Cnidaria and Ctenophora (e.g. jellyfish)

(h) Echinodermata (e.g. starfish)

(i) Porifera (e.g. sponges)

Fig.1.2: Classification of Phylum Chordata

The largest phylum of Animalia includes insects. Both marine and freshwater fishes with bony exoskeletons come under the class Osteichthyes of Phylum Chordata. Class Amphibia includes amphibians that can live in aquatic as well as terrestrial habitats; most of them have two pairs of limbs. The class Reptilia refers to their creeping or crawling mode of locomotion and their body is covered by dry and cornified skin, and epidermal scales (Ex. Turtle, Tree lizard, Cobra, Crocodile). The characteristic feature of class Aves (birds) are the presence of feathers, and most can fly except flightless birds. Class Mammalia are found in various habitats such as deserts, polar ice caps, Forests, Grasslands and dark caves. The most unique mammalian characteristic is the presence of mammary glands, which nourish young ones and have hair on the skin. They commonly exhibit viviparity. Globally, about 1.4 to 1.7 million species have been described. It is also estimated that the total number of species on the Earth ranges from 5 to 100 million. India is one of the world's most ecologically, biologically, and culturally rich countries. It is one of the richest countries among the twelve major countries with abounding biodiversity

1.8. Landscape Ecology

Ecology and natural history strongly relate to an organism's geographic distribution and spatial patterning. Botanists and zoologists described these distribution patterns based on microclimatic factors such as precipitation and temperature throughout the nineteenth century (Monica Goigel, 1989). To understand the structure and function of ecosystems in details, not only on levels of community organization below that of an ecosystem, such as individual organisms, but also increasingly on levels above that of an ecosystem, such as landscape, Eco regional or biome, and global levels should be recognized. The landscape is a region where humans and the environment interact (Wiens & Milne, 1979). It is supposed to originate in the late 1930s when Carl Troll (1939) noted that all methods of natural science are captured in an area of landscape science (Schreiber, 1990) and became widely recognized in central Europe in 1960s. Landscapes change because of ongoing natural processes along with social, political, and economic processes. Landscape ecology deals with changing relationships and emphasizes landscape as a system and level of organization. Thus, understanding landscape-level patterns and processes will help understand processes and phenomena occurring at organism, population, community, and ecosystem levels. Landscape ecology also provides the defined theories, methods, and techniques for the restoration of endangered biodiversity conservation (Holmes, 2015). New techniques such as Intelligent Geographical Information Systems (IGIS) and green books for holistic conservation and landscape are now utilized to assess ecology and biodiversity, including proposed indices of eco-diversity in landscape ecology (Naveh,1994). Different ecological disciplines use connectivity measures in different contexts in spatial ecology. Connectivity is referred as the fundamental factor determining species distribution, and it is one of the many descriptive measures which is typically obtained using GIS that is used to describe the entire landscape and these measurements were used to explain the abundance of species in different landscapes (Moilanen et al., 2002). In landscape ecology, the study systems often, though not always, are relatively well connected; they have a high proportion of suitable habitat, and modelling is based on a GIS-derived grid representation of habitat (e.g.,  Dunning et al. 1995). The existence of living things in an ecosystem and the functioning of the ecosystem contribute to the relevance of biodiversity in nature.

1.9. Threats to Biodiversity

The ecosystem is the hallmark of diversity because it helps to sustain the lives of diverse living things. Loss of biodiversity has direct and indirect adverse effects on food security, vulnerability, health, energy security, clean water and social relations. Biodiversity is under threat all over the world. The Western Ghats and Northeast India are biodiversity hotest hotspots; they have a rich variety of vegetation and animals. Species already restricted to a small area are more prone to extinction, according to the final technical report of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Human activities have accelerated the rate of extinction of species from the earth. The four major reasons also called the Evil Quartet (Fig 1.3), are responsible for the loss of biodiversity.

Fig.1.3: factors responsible for loss of biodiversity

Biodiversity Conservation: Despite knowing about biodiversity’s importance for a long time, human activity has been causing massive extinctions. Ecologically destructive economic activities are inefficient not merely because of the resulting resource misallocation but also because of the (excessive) scale of activity levels, excessive in relation to the limited availability of natural capital when the latter is complementary to human-made capital.          In order to bring about sustainable resource conservation and management, it is essential to adopt several different approaches for managing our forests and biodiversity.

1. Biodiversity Hot Spots: Biodiversity hot spots are an approach for conservation. It is an in situ method of conservation. Eminent conservationists have identified certain regions with very high levels of species richness and a high degree of endemism and also regions of accelerated habitat loss for the maximum protection; these regions are called biodiversity hot spots. Initially, 25 biodiversity hot spots were identified. Now, there are 36 hot spots all over the world. Four hot spots are in India, i.e., Western Ghats/Sri Lanka, Indo-Burma, Sundaland (Including the Nicobar group of islands), and Eastern Himalaya.
2. Sacred Groves: These are a group of trees with special religious importance in a particular culture and are also of mythological significance. These are undisturbed forests without human intervention and are surrounded by highly degraded landscapes. Such forests include a number of rare, endangered and endemic species. These are protected by native people as a part of cultural traditions.
3. Protected Areas: There are 500 biosphere reserves in the world, 18 of which are in India. India has 1014 Protected Areas including 106 National Parks, 573 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 115 Conservation Reserves and 220 Community Reserves, covering a total of 1,75,169.42 km2 of the country's geographical area, which is approximately 5.32%. Jim Corbett National Park was the first national park established in India to conserve biodiversity.
4. Offsite Collections: They are live collections of wild and domesticated species in Botanical Gardens, Zoological Parks, Wildlife Safari Parks, etc. India has 2, 75, 200 Parks, where animals that have become extinct in wild are maintained and 36 Botanical Gardens. Therefore, offsite collections can be used to restock depleted populations, reintroduce species in the wild and restore degraded habitats.
5. Gene Banks: These are the places where stocks of viable seeds (seed banks), live growing plants (orchards), tissue culture and frozen germplasm with the whole range of genetic variability are maintained, Which include Seed Bank, Tissue   Culture, Cryopreservation etc.

1.10. Biodiversity Mapping

The basic information for managing and conserving the natural resources can be obtained through the analysis of vegetation, wildlife, and overall ecosystem functions. It can be achieved through threefold approaches: a phytological basis, remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and a multiscale approach, including landscape ecology (Mohd Hasmadi et al., 2010).  The spatial information can widely apply to many fields, such as landscape planning, nature conservation and forestry (Bredenkamp et al., 1998).  Nowadays, GIS is becoming an inevitable tool for forest management in all over the world. Both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods are utilized in biodiversity mapping to create a database containing the spatial location and attribute table information about the flora and fauna. Through this, it is easy to find the species distribution, damage to the species and many other factors (Mohd Hasmadi et al., 2010). Information needs for biodiversity are many and varied, and now there has been a revolution in the availability of information and in the development and application of tools for managing information. GIS is an important tool for monitoring biodiversity, which accommodates large varieties of spatial and attribute data. All this information is used to target surveys and monitoring schemes (Marqules & Austin, 1991). For a comprehensive assessment of species and habitat biodiversity, habitat factors (e.g., environmental factors such as climate, physiography, vegetation, soils, and geology) and species ranges (i.e., richness) must be considered. These data can be stored on a map (distribution) associated with tabular data to show attributes. Generally, biodiversity assessment is based on data on the range of species, as these are the most prevailing data for most taxa. A species range is the area occupied by a species and is used to refer to a distribution area. Biologists record the geographic location of their observations and collect specimens to determine species range. These data can be plotted on maps to represent species range using points on a base map where artificial boundaries of counties are delineated with raster or vector formats. Distributions of a range of species are modelled with GIS using maps of vegetation types and observations on the distributions of species of interest. These distributions are combined within the GIS to identify areas of the greatest diversity or core areas for different species.

2. Conservation of Biological Diversity: Review

The national strategies for conserving biological diversity define biodiversity as “the variety of all life forms, the different plants, animals and microorganisms, the genes they contain, and the ecosystem they form a part of living organisms, biological systems and processes found on Earth”. It is not static but constantly changing. The term is neolosim obtained by joining words biology, the study of life and diversity, meaning difference and variety. Biodiversity (or biological diversity) is the diversity of living nature (Wilson, 1988). Biodiversity mapping is the implementation of biodiversity assessment and mapping methodology that results in a map and database information product. Digital coverage is an inference of a systematic process involving the gathering, integration, analysis, interpretation, and spatial data development, ultimately leading to the creation of maps. A framework for biodiversity mapping and modeling, encompassing any methodology, must effectively bridge the divide between scientifically derived data on the nature and distribution of biodiversity and knowledge that is pertinent to various stakeholders, including people and policymakers. Global biodiversity monitoring and management programs provide information on the number and distribution of species, enabling governments to protect areas containing rare and threatened species and high levels of biodiversity (Sreedharan, 2004).

2.1. Flora

The identification and characterization of plant wealth in India began in the pre-Christian era. Benjamine Heyne, the first taxonomist to visit the state in the post-Linnaean period, made systematic works in the southern interior parts of Karnataka during 1800. Fmetz (1847) was the first botanist to explore the coastal regions of Karnataka state. He collected several plant species in the different areas of the coastal habitats and extended his exploration to some parts of the Western Ghats regions of the Kodagu district. The great plant explorer of India, Hooker, also made plant exploration in a different part of Karnataka state and included them in the flora of British India (1872).

Prashantkumar and Vidyasagar (2008) documented 26 medicinal plant species belonging to 25 genera and 16 families used for the treatment of skin diseases and eighteen plant species belonging to 13 families and 18 genera used for gynaecological disorders in women in Bidar district through a random survey among the Vaidhya, Kadukurubas, Lambani folk practitioners, local healers, and villagers at the field. Sujata and Rajasab (2015) recorded 82 wild edible plant species through preliminary field surveys and interaction with 70 people from different villages of Bidar. Kalmath et al. (2012) recorded 41 plant species containing important phytochemicals used by traditional practitioners and local peoples in Bidar for various ailments. 55 species of traditional medicinal plants belonging to 35 families are scientifically validated for curing mainly white discharge and oral candidiasis from Hyderabad Karnataka region (Vidyasagar et al., 2014). The study encourages the development of drugs for the treatment of candidiasis from the isolated bioactive constituents of the recorded medicinal plants.

Seetharam et al. (1993) revealed 168 important medicinal plants belonging to 149 genera and 51 families from Gulbarga University Campus. It was found that 65% of Indians depend on the traditional medicine system. (Vidyasagar et al., 2013).Similarly, Kambhar et al. (2014) documented 257 plant species belonging to 219 genera and 68 families from Karnataka State Women’s University.

Rajasab et al. (2011) documented 52 plant species belonging to 27 families that the traditional healers of the Gulbarga district commonly use. The documentation of such knowledge plays an important role in farming the people's health policies and the extraction and characterization of the bioactive compounds. Rajasab et al. (2004) revealed the importance of edible wild plants of Karnataka since a large part of the population of North Karnataka living in remote and village areas. They recorded 22 plant species that are eaten substantially by the local ethnic groups, and plant species were identified with the aid of taxonomic keys. Similarly, 36 folk medicinal plants from Gulbarga district was enumerated by  Devendra et al. (2010) through the survey conducted among the local healers and experienced adults.

Morabed et al. (2013) assessed major and trace elements in ten medicinal plants which used to treat several diseases. Plants collected from different areas of Gulbarga district is collected and cleaned, one gram of each sample was washed with chemicals. After heating and evaporation, the extract was diluted with water and filtered through Whatman filter paper No.1.The Filtered acid extract was diluted with deionized water and analyzed using an Atomic Absorption Spectrometer to identify the range of major elements such as Fe, Zn, Mn and Cu. They found that the selected medicinal can be used safely for treatment purposes because the values of trace elements in those plants do not exceed the limiting values set by World Health Organization Values.

Naik et al. (1994) examined the effects of limestone mining on the vegetation around Kurkunta in Gulbarga district through the vegetation survey analysis of soil, water and air around that area. They contemplated that the area is a semi-arid region with low rainfall, less fertile soil, and lack of perennial water resources, and vegetation is sparse and scattered with a dominance of Acacia sp, Prosopis sp, and Maytenus sp.

Sunil et al. (2013) conducted a study across the Uranium mining area spread in Gulbarga and Yadgir districts of Karnataka to study the different vegetation strata, including tree, shrub, grasses, trees, saplings, seedlings and the fauna which is seen in above and below ground. A vegetation survey was carried out using standard methods and line transitions of variable lengths, light traps, pitfall traps, baited traps, and litter collection methods used to study invertebrates. Line transects and points count method for the avifaunal study. Sound observation, pug marks, scats, pellets, and vocals are observed for big mammal data, and the fish diversity is explored using a net fishing method. All collected fauna and flora data is analyzed for density, abundance, frequency, Important Value Index, and other biodiversity indices. 376 species of angiosperms (trees, shrubs, herbs and climbers), 1 bryophyte, 4 pteridophytes, 5 lichens and 20 phytoplankton have been recorded. And also 164 species of insects, 82 species of spiders 17 mollusks, 11 fishes, 5 amphibians, 13 reptiles, 71 aves, 11 mammals and 24 zooplankton, Varieties of butterflies have been spotted and documented in and around the study zones.

Rajasamarsen et al. (2016) documented 38 rare and endangered plant species currently found in the Yadgir district through extensive floristic and taxonomical surveys during different seasons in different habitats. Similarly, Rajasamarsen et al. (2016) made an inventory of angiosperms medicinal plants in sacred groves, which are patches of vegetation preserved on religious grounds in Gavisiddalingeswara sacred grove located in Chintanpalli of Yadgir district. The extensive field survey of 3 years revealed a floristic diversity of a total of 114 medicinal plants belonging to 47 families and 100 genera among them 41 are tree species, 37 herbs (one aquatic) 18 shrubs and 18 climbers.

Elemental analysis of selected medicinal plants from North Karnataka Region of Yadgir District is done by Santosh et al. (2017) using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy Method to evaluate the potentiality of these plants in there used for herbal therapies. The study reported that Calcium Concentration is the highest among all medicinal plants, and the elements like Mg, Al, K, Ca, Cr, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Si, Ti, V, Mo, and Cd were found in different concentrations,

Srinath et al. (2016) recorded 13 plant species belonging to 13 genera and 12 families used to treat primary infertility in women by traditional practitioners of Vijayapur (Bijapur) district and the major species found are Aegle marmelos, Tribulus terrestris, Zizipus jujube etc.

Indigenous floral elements of the Bijapur district was assessed by Kambhar et al. (2014) and Goudappagoudar et al. (2017) and they documented 139 species belonging to 121 genera distributed in 52 families and 323 species belonging to 67 families and 254 genera of flowering plants respectively.

An extensive floristic survey was conducted by Sidanand et al. (2011) to account for alien fauna from different habitats of Gadag district and they compiled a list of 701 species belonging to 456 genera and 108 families, and they revealed that 54% species are native of Tropical America and followed by Tropical Africa and Arabia (17%). Vidyasagar et al.(2017) documented 57 medicinal oil plants species belonging to 56 genera used in treating skin diseases at Hyderabad- Karnataka region (Bidar, Kalaburagi, Raichur and Yadgir) and Azadirachta indica, Semecarpus anacardium, Ricinus communis, Ocimumscantum, Brassica juncea, Jatropha curcas are found as major species.

Harihar et al. (2012) documented 27 wild medicinal plant species belonging to 25 genera and 17 families from Kappath hills, Gadag, 627 plant species from Kappath forest (Harihar et al., 2014) and the Badami forest, Bagalkot which is one of the floristically rich dry deciduous forests of Deccan Peninsular Region have 84 tree species belonging to 68 genera covering 35 families (Jagadhish et al., 2017). 89 medicinal plant species were recorded by Shiddamallayya et al. (2015) from Mandya district. Of recorded 28 plants are identified as demanding plants for the preparations of herbal and ayurvedic system of medicine such as Achyranthes aspera, Aegle marmelos, Azadirachta indica etc.

Lakshmana et al. (2013) undertook an extensive field survey to procure medicinally important plants from the Kadugolla tribals of Tumkur district, Karnataka. The survey yielded 35 plant species belonging to 34 genera and 24 families in which families Asclepiadaceae and Lamiaceae are represented by the maximum number of species employed in an animal's ailments. Similarly, Guruprasad (2011) recorded 34 species belonging to families Ceasalpiniaceae, Moraceae, Piperaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Asteraceae, Brassiacaeae from Chamundi hills, Mysore.

Forest structure and composition of angiospermic species in Kaiwara Reserve forest, Chintamani Taluk, Chikkaballapura is assessed by Chandu et al. (2017), and they encountered 2117 individuals from 134 species in which 44 families represented by dicotyledons, 21 families by monocotyledons. The most dominant Family was Fabaceae (27 species) followed by Rubiaceae (18 sp) and Cyperaceae (7 sp). Also they found that tree species shows high diversity whereas liana shows less diversity in the study area. Rajeshwari et al. (2018) assessed the importance and usage of medicinal plants by traditional healers of Koppal district from randomly selected villages of Gangavati Taluk, Kushtagi Ta and Kumaraswami hills of Snadur Ta.

Ramana et al. (2007) presented the overall scenario in the Magadi wetland in Gadag district Karnataka with respect to floral diversity. Magadi wetland is a man-made wetland that harness rainwater for irrigation and is now host to so many waterfowls. The rapid vegetation survey listed a total of 52 plant species, which included shrubs (18), herbs (14), grasses (7), and trees. The degradation in the water quality affects the floral and faunal population along with the people dependent on this ecosystem.

Suresh et al. (2000) documented the plant species diversity of Indian Institute of Science Campus, Bangalore, one of the richest zones of plant diversity in Bangalore, by conducting an extensive vegetation survey. They revealed 112 species of woody (trees) and 265 species of nonwoody plants in which Fabaceae dominated the tree flora and Poaceae (grasses) dominated the nonwoody flora and also found that 44.5% of trees were native and 55.5% were exotic in origin. They documented some rare species in the campus such as Feronia elephant (Wood apple), Mellettia peguensis, Dillenia indica (Elephant apple), Pseudobombax ellipticum and Chorisia speciose.

A study was conducted by Girish et al. (2015) to identify the abundance and availability of different biofuel tree species in Alur taluk, Hassan district as feedstock for the production of biofuel in the district and to understand the socio-economic characteristics of the Biofuel growers after the intervention of biofuel species at village level. The major species used are Honge (Pongamia pinnata), Neem (Azadiracta indica), Hippe (Maduca latifolia), Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) and Simarouba (Simarouba glauca) and they found that in all the villages productive Honge(Pongamia pinnata) trees are present and the number varied from 3 to 2,000 trees/village yielding on an average around 2 to 10 kg per tree.

Kotresha et al. (2011) enumerated a total of 274 plant resources belonging to 215 genera and 80 families of Sri Ramathirth sacred grove, Halasi, Khanapur taluka, Belgavi District, of Karnataka. Banne et al. (2014) contemplated an ethno-medicinal study of some trees in and around of Jambooti village, Belgaum, which is situated on the Western Ghats and encountered a total 35 numbers of trees belonging to 25 families which are locally available and used by people of Jambooti village.

Nandhini et al. (2015) documented psammophyte and associated medicinal plants in wildlife division forests of Chamarajanagar district. The psammophyte and associated plants are evident to show variation in size and shape of leaf, flower and fruit structures. The study revealed 62 plant species belonging to 41 genera and 29 families, which shows more therapeutic importance with reference to the Indian system of medicine.

Narasimhachar (1984) undertook a great work to enumerate the Latin and Kannada names of indigenous and medicinal plants of Mysore district Karnataka. He collected details of 1365 plants species found in Mysore from various dependable resources and illustrated their Latin and Kannada names to avoid possible confusion.

Shiddamallayya et al. (2016) reported 79 medicinal plant species from Gadag District and 36 plants used for veterinary purposes from the Hassan district (Shiddamallayya et al., 2017).

Vidyasagar et al. (2013) conducted an ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used to treat gastrointestinal disorders in Bellary district, Karnataka. They collected data through PRA method and PIC was taken from each informant. They documented 32 species of folk drug plants belonging to 32 genera and 27 families. Similarly, they recorded A total of 28 species of folk drug plants belonging to 26 genera and 20 families which is used for the treatment of Diabetes (Vidyasagar et al. 2013) and 28 medicinal plant species belonging to 26 genera and 20 families for respiratory disorders treatment(Vidyasagar et al.2013) in Bellary district of Karnataka.

Harisha et al. (2013) attempted to assess the floristic diversity of Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Hospet, Bellary district, Karnataka, mainly to understand the impact of changes in the forest cover of sanctuary due to human activities. These data were analyzed to measure the Important Value Index, Shannon Weiner Index, Species Richness index, Species Evenness index, and Index of Dominance. The census revealed a total of 98 plant species which include 85 genera and 37 families and 4 species found as dominant such as Grewia hirsute (64), Grewia sp (60), Ocimum americanum (52), Evolvus alsinoides (50). The Shannon Weiner index was found to be 3.909 and a species richness of 26, indicating high sanctuary diversity.

The vegetation status of Bellary district is studied by Sathyanarayan et al. (2008) and documented 286 species belonging to 228 genera and 68 families in which 221 species was dicotyledons and 64 species was monocotyledons. The ratio of families to genera and species is approximately found to be as 1:3.4:4.2.

2.2. Birds

Birds are one of the best indicators of the environmental quality of the ecosystem and perform various roles such as Scavenger, Pollinator, and Predators of insect pests (Chavan, 2015). A checklist is the first metric of the biodiversity of an area. Subramanya et al. (2016) offered a checklist for identifying the Karnataka bird species. They assessed 531 species of birds, 16 of which are endemic to the Western Ghats, and 27 species that fall under the various threatened categories of the IUCN by collating sightings from 11 documents, direct field observation, and clear photographs of bird species.

Mahesh (2009) worked on the Management of Greater Short Toed Larks Calandrella brachydactyla in Indian aerodrome, in which he clearly discussed reasons and managing strategies adopted in the Bidar airfields. A system of a grid system based on magnetic orientation of runway was combined with time series data collection to obtain the spatial distribution of birds. The Studies clearly established an operating corridor of Greater Short-toed Larks over Bidar airfield thus it focusses the species-specific managing of the airfield by planting certain plants like Villyathi babool, Prosopis and Bougainvillea in the described way, several other measures are also taken into account.

Manjunath et al. (2014) attempted to assess the impact of urbanization on avifauna and also the status of the species in Gulbarga city of Karnataka mainly in the Shree Sharnabasveshwar Lake, the reservoir in the heart of the city. Three different transects were studied and 30 plant species,42 bird species which consist of 35 are resident species, 6 winter migrant and 1 summer migrant respectively were identified. The highest population of Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis) and Blue Rock Pigeon (Columba livia) was recorded in this study, and the activity and patterns of migratory birds were also documented. Their study reflects that reducing a large number of bird species in the urban environment and increasing the abundance of House Crows directly results in a decreased abundance of forest species like the Golden Oriole. And they also recorded 39 species of birds belonging to 8 orders of 15 families from freshwater Gogi, Shahpur taluk in Yadgir (Manjunath et al. 2016) and 40 species of birds belonging to 08 orders and 16 families40 species of birds belonging to 08 orders and 16 families from Bonal Reservoir in Surpur taluk, Yadgir.

Zacharias (1985) conducted an avifaunal survey in Gundlupet town, on either side of the Ootty road, Hangala, Mysore road, Calicut road and portions of Burgi and Madahalli villages. Altogether he recorded 146 bird species consisting of 79 nonpasserines and 67 passerines. Of these, 21 species were migrants and other residents. It is found that the largest number of birds from Maddur is probably because of the edge effect.

Rajasekhara et al. (2009) evaluated the composition, abundance, and diversity of aquatic avian species in different lakes in the Bangalore region. They worked out Pearman’s correlation, percent abundance and frequency, Marglef’s richness index, and distribution ratio of aquatic bird species using analysis of variance Megastat version 7.25 software. They also carried out cluster analysis to create a dendrogram to assess the similarity in abundance of waterbird species and waterbird families in the Bangalore lakes using Biodiversity Pro Version 2. They recorded 34 species of aquatic birds that belong to 21 genera under 11 families and eight orders. Among them, the Ardeidae family dominates with 8 species; a minimum number of species was from Podicipedidae (1) and Anas querquedula and Bubulcus ibis (13.79% each) were highly abundant. In contrast, Anas clypeata was the least abundant (0.24%) one. Only two species, Pelecanus philippensis (Spot-billed Pelican) and Mycteria leucocephala (Painted Stork) are near threatened species and the rest were least concerned. They found a significant difference (F=120.68, df =33, P<0.05) in the percent frequency and species distribution ratio (F=20.15, df =33, P<0.05) of various waterbird species in the Bangalore lakes and also a positive correlation between the abundance and percent frequency of aquatic birds.

A study was done by Basavarajappa et al. (2016) on avifaunal diversity at a few aquatic ecosystems of Mysore district, Karnataka. They selected four ponds at different villages randomly and recorded a total of 43 bird species, which belongs 15 families in four orders in which Anseriformes were represented by 12 families with good species diversity (33 species), 29 bird species were found as the resident to Mysore district and around 12 bird species were migratory and only two bird species were local migrant.

Harish et al. (2016) enumerated the waterfowl population of Magadi bird sanctuary which is a manmade lake that is built on the outskirts of the village in Shirahatti Taluk of Gadag District. They prepared the checklist based on the fieldwork by using point count and direct count methods for a period of 5 years, and it compiles 33 species of wetland birds belonging to 11 families. The year wise variation in the density and abundance was found to be more during 2012-2013 and the most abundant species found was Bar headed geese, Followed by Demoiselle Crane and also four globally near-threatened species were recorded.

A study about avifauna diversity of the backwater region of Bannerol of TB dam was documented by Hosetti et al.(2017). Based direct and point count method they prepared a checklist of141 species of birds under 59 families and 21 orders. The Bar headed Geese found as the dominant species and Order Passeriformes dominated the list by 22 families with high diversity (36.17%).93.61% of birds comes under Least Concerned status and thus they concluded that TB dam provide better habitat for various migratory species. Similarly, a survey of Avifauna was carried from Nipani region, belongs to Chikodi, Belgaum by Lanka et al., (2013) have recorded about 173 species belonging to 49 families.

2.3. Fishes

Freshwater fishes are considered a mega-diverse group of vertebrates and the prime indicator of ecosystem status (Karr et al., 1986).  Riverine fauna shows a high degree of endemism, and the most endemic fish species are seen at the headwater streams (Groombridge, 1992; Kottelat & Whitten, 1997). Out of 24,618 species of fishes in the World, nearly 8.60% (2,118 species) were reported from India (Nelson, 1994). Freshwater biodiversity remains among the most endangered and poorly protected resources on Earth (Dudgeon 2011; Cooke et al., 2012) and shows that almost 1 in 3 freshwater species face a high risk of extinction (Collen et al., 2014).

Naik et al. (2013) attempted to work out the biodiversity of fish fauna in Karanja Reservoir, Bidar. They conducted the sampling at three important fishing land centers viz. Byalahalli, Athiwala, and Kheni Ranjola using gill nets. The identified species used to work out many diversity indices such as Shannon- Weiner, Pielou's evenness indices, Hill's abundance, Margalef's index, Bray Coefficient and are worked out by using PRIMER V5 analytical package. The study revealed the occurrence of 64 freshwater fish species belonging to 37 genera, 16 families and 5 orders were recorded. Catla catla shows the high abundance and Athiwala fish landing center have greater fish biodiversity. The overall diversity of fish found in the present study was considerably higher or very nearer to the number of species reported from many rivers of Karnataka and adjoining states like Andra Pradesh and Maharashtra. The study also contemplated the abundance of African catfish which is regarded as the most destructive fish in wild due to illegal supply. Similarly, they recorded thirty  two  fresh  water  fish  species  belonging  to  six  orders in from Upper  Mullamari  Reservoir in Bidar (Naik et al. ,2013) and 45 species belonging to 15 families and 5 orders from Chulkinala reservoir,       ( Bidar Naik et al. 2014)

Rajashekar et al. (2010) worked on Mullameri River, a minor tributary of river Bheema in Gulbarga district of Karnataka, with high fish diversity is studied. 14 freshwater species identified the basis of the colour pattern, specific spots or marks on the surface of the body, shape of the body, structure of various fins etc. and using taxonomic keys. Similar studies carried out on Bheema river (Vijayakumar et al., 2011) and reported nine species belonging to six orders of fish fauna. The occurrence of seventeen fish species belonging to five orders at Kurikotta Bridge Bennithora River in Gulbarga is documented through the similar sampling technique (Ravikiran et al, 2014). Ten fish species belonging to 3 orders were identified from Shree Sharanabasaveshwara Lake Gulbarga district, Karnataka (Mala Ramesh et al., 2014)

Documentation of the Ichthyofaunal diversity of Freshwater of Gogi, Yadgir was done by Manjunath et al. (2015) and they confirmed the occurrence of 16 species belong to 3 orders. They found Siluriformes as dominant order with 8 species, followed by Cypriniformes with 7 spices, and Osteogolossiformes with one species.

Sunil et al. (2016) conducted a study to find out diversity and structure of zooplankton community in that context of development related to pressures and climate change and also to understand the changes in the population structure during various seasons in Golgi Lake, Shahpur taluk, Yadgir district. ArcGIS Software is used to evaluate the Land Use and Land Cover of the study area and satellite data were collected to understand the changes in the village landscape. The study recorded a total of 22 species of zooplankton in which Phylum Rotifers comprises 15 species. A maximum number of species was found during the summer and minimum in the rainy season. They also revealed that settlements near to the study area have increased from 25 hectares to 63 hectares thus they are suggesting to formulate proper management measures to conserve the lake. They also conducted a similar study to document the phytoplankton seen in Golgi Lake (Nayaka, 2018).

Ichthyofaunal diversity of Tumkur district is documented and it is found that 15 species of freshwater fishes in Mydala Lake (Shivaraju et al., 2017), 11 fish species from Kallambella Tank (Nayka, 2018) 10 fish species belonging 3 orders from Teetha dam (Nayaka, 2018)

15 species of fishes belong to 9 families and 12 different genera from Bhima River and 11 species of fishes belong to 6 families and 8 different genera From Krishna river were recorded by Renuka et al. (2014). The predominant orders found to be Cypriniformes, Perciformes and Siluriformes.

The fish distribution in Tungabhadra is assessed by Chacko et al. (1948) with special reference to the breeding and nursery areas of the major food fishes. Sixty-seven species of fishes have been found which nineteen are new records

Krishnan et al., (2004) documented the 29 species of fish under 15 families from Bangalore and Kolar which contemplated two new records viz., Esomus thermoicosand Rasbora labiosa, Amblypharyngodon microlepis and Aplocheilus panchax are reported from the wild after a span of 65 years. A comprehensive account of ichthyofaunal of Cauvery river system by Jayaram et al., (1982) reports the presence of 93 species in Karnataka.

The survey of fish fauna in the Hebbal Lake by Nayaka (2018) reported the total of 14 species belonging 3 orders and 4 families. The order Cypriniformes was most dominant group followed by Perciformes and Siluriformes.

Deviprasad et al. (2009) identified Forty-five species of fishes belonging to 15 families from major wetlands of Mysore district in which seven species identified as endangered and six species identified as threatened and also 40 species is found as endemic to the region.

Shahnawaz et al. (2010) reported 56 fish species from the Bhadra River in the WG region of Karnataka. Puntius chola, Puntius sophore, Hypselobarbus kolus, Cirrhinus fulungee, Cirrhinus reba , and Osteobrama neilli were the most common and uniformly distributed fishes in the Bhadra River. Mystus krishnensis, Mystus armatus, Ompok pabo, Wallago attu, and Gagata itchkea were the fish species reported as comparatively rare and confined to lower reaches of the river.

Dahanukar et al. (2015) reported a new percomorph fish, Badis britzi, from the Nagodi tributary of Sharavati River in Karnataka.

2.4. Mammals

Mammals are highly developed vertebrates. It is estimated that there are 4629 species of mammals globally and 372 mammals were reported from India.  Almost 8% of the global mammalian population is reported in India (Sreedharan, 2004). Large mammals are prone to extinction due to their greater body mass and associated life history traits (Cardillo et al., 2004).

For proper management of a wildlife reserve, it is essential to get estimates of the occurrence, abundance, density and biomass of herbivores that determine the density of carnivores. The density of the species differed among habitats that included evergreen, moist deciduous, dry deciduous and scrub forests (Kumara et al., 2012)

A modest attempt was made by Sanjeeva Reddy et al. (2016) to document the distribution and population of blackbucks in the Bidar district. Though the ideal habitat for the blackbuck lies with the combination of grassland and forest patches of agricultural fields, a direct field survey was conducted and 886 individual species were recorded, becoming the second highest number in Karnataka.

A new distribution record of Tadarida aegyptiaca (Egyptian free-tailed bat) was reported by Tariq Ahmad et al. (2014) from crevices among large boulders on hills and between the gaps of pillars of ancient temples of Bellary and Raichur district. The Egyptian free-tailed bat is endemic to South Asia and it is so far been recorded only from two sites in Karnataka (Kolar and Dharwad). They also indicate that the Egyptian free-tailed bat from peninsular India is distinct from that of northern and western India, owing to the bacular morphology.

The Indian grey wolf ‘Canis lupus pallipe’s is the major large carnivore in the plains of Karnataka. Singh et al. (2006) studied its distribution and status and estimated 555 wolves occupying about 123330 km2 of the state. Their distribution is now largely restricted to the north-eastern dry plains. The wolf has also disappeared in recent years from some ‘protected areas’ such as Melkote Temple Wildlife Sanctuary, and their present population is largely found in ‘non-protected’ areas.

An extensive survey on bonnet macaques in the south Indian state of Karnataka is carried out by Kumara et al. (2010). Bonnet macaque groups were encountered at a rate of 2.11 groups/ 100 km in a road survey. Encounter rates were high in the districts of Chamarajanagar, Shimoga, Bangalore, Kolar, Kodagu, and Mysore, and they are higher in wet evergreen forests than in deciduous forests. Mean group size was highest in human habitations, followed by deciduous forests, roadsides and evergreen forests. 

Due to sustained threats by anthropogenic pressure, including habitat degradation and loss, India's sloth bears (Melursus ursinus) have become limited in range, habitat, and population size. Sayantanet al. (2006) identified ecological and anthropogenic determinants of occurrence within an occupancy framework to evaluate habitat suitability of non-protected regions (with sloth bears) in northeastern Karnataka. They employed a systematic sampling methodology to yield, presence–absence data to examine a priori hypotheses of determinants that affected occupancy.

Kumara et al. (2007) recorded 143 animals belonging to 11 species of small carnivores, of which about 17 species are expected in the state of Karnataka. The sighted species include Leopard cat, Rusty spotted cat, Jungle cat, Small Indian civet, Asian palm civet, Brown palm civet, Ruddy mongoose, Stripe necked mongoose and otters. The Western Ghat alone accounts for thirteen species of small carnivores, six of which are endemic. The sighting of Rusty spotted cat is first reported from Karnataka.

The endangered Kolar leaf nosed bat Hipposideros hypophyllus is endemic to the Kolar district and is only known from two localities: Hanumanahalli and Therahalli (Srinivasalu, 2014)

For proper management of a wildlife reserve, it is essential to get estimates of the occurrence, abundance, density and biomass of herbivores that determine the density of carnivores. The density of the species differed among habitats that included evergreen, moist deciduous, dry deciduous and scrub forests (Kumara et al., 2012)

2.5. Amphibians

It is estimated that 4522 amphibian species are present worldwide, and of those, 4.4% are reported from India (Sreedharan, 2004). The species composition of the amphibian and reptilian community in Gulbarga University Campus is provided by Manjukanth et al. (2014 and documented the details of 16 species of herpetofauna belonging to 12 families, which includes 9 species of snakes, 4 species of amphibians, 3 species of lizards and high abundance of Duttaphrynus melanostictus is noted from the study. They found that nine species of snakes in that study area initiate human-snake conflict quite often.

Krishnamurthy and Shakuntala (2013) reported 35 amphibian species from Sringeri Taluk. Sringeri is a small Taluk situated on the Western Ghats region of Chickamagalore District through field survey in agricultural fields, semi-evergreen forests, low and high-elevation evergreen forests. Various species reported are from the genus Rana, Philautus, Ichthyophis, Bufo, Polypedatus, Nyctibatrachus Ramanella montana, Microhyla ornata, Uraeoryphlus narayani, and Rhacophorus malabaricus. The overall amphibian fauna of Sringeri amounts to 45 and 22% of that reported for Karnataka and the Western Ghats, respectively. The rich diversity of the amphibian fauna in the region is related to the congenial environmental features of the area.

Alexander et al. (2014) identified seven species of anurans from the Taralu village adjoining the Bannerghatta National Park, Bengaluru. The primary species found are Polipedates maculates, Microhyla ornata, and Duttaphrynus smelanosticus, Fejervarya sp.

Pattar et al. (2010) documented thirteen species of anuran amphibians in Dharwad, and they noticed the absence of Uperedon systoma and a drastic reduction in the population density of Hoplobatrachus tigerinus

Based on the systematic analysis, a total of 26 species of anurans belonging to 14 genera 8 families have been recorded in the Rajiv Gandhi National Park, Nagarahole by Krishna et al., (2012). Of these, nearly 20 species are endemic to the Western Ghats of India and Sri Lanka. As per the IUCN threat status, the species that are recorded in the study area belong to 4 endangered, 2 near threatened, 5 vulnerable, 2 data deficient and 9 least concerned species. The remaining 4 species are restricted to the Western Ghats.

Bennet et al. (2000) described the 21 species of amphibian communities at Lackunda Estate, a coffee plantation in Coorg (Karnataka, India) on the border of Nagarhole National Park. The most abundant frogs were Microhyla spp. and Limnonectes. The rarest frogs were all Philautus species

River basins are topographically and hydrologically well-defined units of space, and a study has been carried out in five river basins, namely Sharavathi, Aghanashini, Bedti, and Kali of Uttara Kannada District to assess the amphibian diversity. Forty-seven amphibians were recorded from Uttara Kannada by Ramachandra et al., (2012), contributing nearly 30% of observed amphibians from the Western Ghats.

Indirana is the only genus of the endemic amphibian that belongs to the family Ranixalidae present in the Western Ghats. Indirana gundia is classified as a critically endangered frog species as per the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. This species was discovered in 1986 in the forests of Kemphole and Sakleshpur, Karnataka, by Dubois (1986) and is known to occur only in the type locality (Gundya) at an altitude of 200 msl

2.6. Reptiles

Reptiles are widely distributed class of Kingdom Animalia. It is estimated that 484 species of reptiles are in India (Kumar et al., 1998).  Yellow-spotted Wolf Snake Lycodon flavomaculatus Wall, 1907 is endemic to India with confirmed records from Dharwad, Karnataka (Wall, 1907). A new cryptic species of ground-dwelling Hemidactylus (Squamata: Gekkonidae) from Karnataka found by Mirza (2008) by resembling Hemidactylus reticulatus from northern Karnataka with Recently collected specimens of a gecko with regards to its morphology and molecular divergence. It is the first contribution to resolving the species complex. And the integration of molecular and morphological data supports the distinctness of the new species.

The demographic studies on Sitana ponticeriana show that the species is abundant in Gabbur village, Dharwad (Shanbhag et al., 2003). Ganesh et al. (2013) reported 71 reptilian species (47% are WG endemic) from the Agumbe Plateau of Central Western Ghats. Vogel & Roiijen (2012) reported a new Dendrelaphis species, Dendrelaphis girii, from Castle Rock, District Belgaum, Karnataka.

Ganesh et al. (2013) examined the species richness and distribution patterns of reptiles inhabiting the Central Western Ghats Mountains covering six different districts, namely Talakaveri, South Canara, Udupi, Shimoga, Chikmagalur and North Canara of Karnataka. A total of 71 species of reptiles, comprising of 4 chelonians, 24 lizards and 43 snakes are reported, revealing that there have been significant additions to the reptile fauna now known from the Central Western Ghats.

2.7. Other Taxa

According to Sunil et al. (2017), invertebrate diversity could be a valuable indicator of landscape degradation, and spiders have significant value as an indicator taxa. Barren lands have more spider diversity (64 species) as compared with other habitats and he documented a total of 1060 individuals of 82 species of spiders (44 genera and 19 families) from Gogi, Yadgir, which is a Uranium mining site in which most of the species were found to be diurnal-web builders (35) and diurnal-hunter (29).

An investigation was made to record the species composition, density, abundance, and percent occurrence of different spider species at various ecosystems in and around Mysore, Karnataka, India by Basavarajappaet al. (2018). A direct field survey was carried out in three different areas such as Manasagangotri Campus, Kukkarahalli Lake, and the agricultural ecosystem for a period of four months. Hand Picking Method was employed to collect the dead spiders and preserved in 70% ethyl alcohol with proper labelling and brought them to the laboratory for identification these were identified on the basis of morphological characteristics as per Cohn (1990), Tikader (1987) and Sebastian and Peter (2009). Altogether, they observed 65 spider species belonging to 15 families of the order Araneae in which family Salticidae dominated with 15 species. The density of Peucetia viridana (Oxyopidae) was high (4.09), and the Oxyopes javanus (Oxyopidae) was found to be abundant (0.62).

Pulikeshiet al.(2017) recorded 41 species of spiders, 24 different species of ants belonging to 15 genera (Pulikeshi et al., 2016) and 36 species of butterflies(Pulikeshi et al.,2016)  from Karnatak University, Dharwad campus,

Butterflies are seasonal in their occurrence, mainly in their flight periods. The diversity of butterflies from the Ankalga village of the Gulbarga district was explored by Murali and Sulochana (2014). A total of 787 individuals belonging to 31 species, 23 genera and 5 families of butterflies were recorded and Lime butterfly and common rose of this family is found as most abundant in that area and 4 endemic species of swallowtails is also reported from Ankalga village. A similarly modest attempt to explore the existing diversity of Dragonflies and Damselflies from Ankalga village, Gulbarga district is done by Sulochana et al. (2014) documented a total of 14 species representing 13 genera and 4 families from Ankalga village.

Hosetti et al. (2013) enumerated the butterfly diversity in the tropical thorn dry deciduous scrub jungle with granite boulder outcrop habitats of Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Bellary District using pollard walk method. A total of 41 butterfly species belonging to Hesperiidae, Papilionidae, Pieridae, Lycaenidae and Nymphalidae families were recorded in which two species of butterflies recorded from this region have protected status under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Similarly, 53 butterfly species were identified from Kondajji forest, Harihar, Davanagere District (Hosetti et al., 2015). 

The subfamily Chaitophorinae of Aphid species was first recorded from South India in the study of Sunil (2008), aphids and aphidocolous ants from Karnataka. They examined 66 aphid species under 38 genera belonging to 7 subfamilies and revealed 18 new species, six of which are new records from south India. And also he critically identified 11 species of ants belonging to 8 genera were found associated with 24 species of aphids infesting 42 host plants and 24 new aphid and ant association. 6 species of insect pest of redgram with special reference to Heliothis armigera are recorded in the survey conducted by Giraddi et al., (1989).

Sulochana et al. (2016) recorded 408 individuals from 12 species belonging to 4 different subfamilies and 9 genera of Coccinellidae species seen in Ankalga Village near Kurikotta Bridge, Gulbarga. Coccinellids are the most familiar bettles, also known as ladybirds, and act as bio indicators that can provide general information about their inhabiting ecosystem.

The study conducted by Anand et al. (2015) on insect pests of cereals and pulses and their natural enemies in several seed storage centers in Vijayapur district revealed eight types of crop commodities such as sorghum, pearl millet, wheat, bengal gram, chickpea, redgram, black gram and moth bean and the natural enemies were found to be Amphibolus venator on Tribolium castaneum and Corcyra cephalonica, Xylocoris flavipes on Tribolium castaneum, Sitotroga cerelella and Callosobruchus chinensis, Dinarmus sp. on Callosobruchus chinensis respectively.

Phylum Mollusca, the second largest of invertebrates, comprises of soft-bodied animals. They inhabit very diverse habitats like marine, estuarine, freshwater, terrestrial and arboreal. In India, about 215 species of molluscs were reported from mangrove areas of the east and west coasts. A comprehensive checklist of 16 genera of molluscs found in the Indian mangrove areas compiled from various sites in Uttara Kannada is given by Boominathan et al. (2012) . Of these 12 genera are assigned to class Gastropoda. Rajshekhar et al. (2010) attempted to compare the distribution, abundance and relationship of Bhutal and Almatti reservoir of Bijapur district, Karnataka with special reference of molluscan fauna. The study documented 11 species of molluscan of which 8 are gastropods and three belongs to bivalves. Lymnaea luteola, Lymnaea acuminate, Melania scabra, Diogoniostoma pulchella are found as the dominant species. And also they found that all the physicochemical parameters are within the permissible limit and the occurrence of molluscans directly correlated with calcium and total hardness

2.8. Spatial Distribution

The mapping of spatial distribution for flora and fauna relies on three key approaches: a phytosociological basis, utilizing ecological plant community data; remote sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS) technologies; and a multi-scale approach that incorporates principles from landscape ecology. The influence of GIS techniques in vegetation mapping, combined with a combination of ground studies, is magnificent (Hasmadi, 2010). The wealth of information contained in these maps is widely applied to many fields such as landscape planning, nature conservation and forestry (Bredenkamp et al., 1998; Rusanen et al., 2001). According to the study Small carnivores of Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Tiger Reserve, Karnataka, India conducted by Kumara et al. (2014) in the Karnataka region shows the relation between the distribution of species and their habitat preference. In this study, they classify the forest types of the study area into various groups, Evergreen, Moist and dry deciduous, Scrub forests and plantations. They collect the geographical details of species findings and overlaid above the map of study area and concluded that small carnivores were more in the dry deciduous forest (38.52%), followed by moist deciduous forests (28.68%), 27% in evergreen forests and the least distribution is seen in the scrub forest (5.74%). The main issue with having plants mapped spatially using GIS is to contribute to comprehensive planning, especially in protecting the ecosystem. Several examples of using remote sensing and GIS in vegetation mapping were presented by Walsh et al. (1994), Guisan and Thuiller (2005).

3. Objectives

The current Issue of Sahyadri E News provides the information pertaining to distribution of the flora and fauna in Karnataka.

1. Inventorying Flora and Fauna Data: Collect and compile data on the distribution, family, and conservation status of flora and fauna in Karnataka.
2. Mapping District-wise Spatial Distribution: Employing mapping techniques to visually represent the spatial distribution of flora and fauna across different districts in Karnataka.
3. Identifying Abundance and Prioritizing Biodiversity-Rich Regions: Analyzing the data to identify regions with high biodiversity abundance and prioritizing these areas in Karnataka for conservation efforts.

4. Study Area

Karnataka, one of the Southern states of India, is confined roughly within 11.5° and 18.50° N and 74° and 78.30° E in the southern plateau where the Western and Eastern Ghat ranges converge into the Nilgiri hill complex. The state being the eighth largest Indian state by area, the ninth largest by population and comprises 31 districts, covers an area of 191,976 km² or 5.83% of the total geographical area of India and is bordered by the Arabian Sea to the west, Goa to the northwest, Maharashtra to the north, Andhra Pradesh to the east, and Kerala to the southwest. As per details from Census 2022, Karnataka has population of 7.17 Crore of which male and female are 34,413,000 and 33,419,000, respectively, and literacy is 75.36 %. The annual rainfall ranges from 500 mm to over 4000 mm. Major Crops are Ragi, jowar, rice; sugarcane, and coconut. Bengaluru is the capital of the state. Kannada is the official language. Bangalore, the third-most populous city in India, accounts for 35% of India's software exports, and is also a major base for public sector manufacturing industries. Karnataka is the only exporter of sandalwood in India. Kolar Gold Fields (KGF) was once the only gold producer in the country.

Karnataka accounts for about six percent of the country's surface water resources, 17 lakh million cubic meters. About 40 percent of this is available in the east flowing rivers. There are seven river basins with which their tributaries drain the State. The river systems include:

• The Krishna System- Krishna, Tungabhadra, Vedavati, Malaprabha, Ghataprabha,
• The Kaveri System- Kaveri, Hemavati, Harangi, Kapila, Shimsha.
• The Godavari - Manjra and Karanja
• West flowing rivers - Kalinadi, Gagavali, Aghanashini, Sharavati, Varahi, Netravati.
• North Pennar
• South Pennar
• Palar

Karnataka has 3.83 million ha of recorded forest area, around 20% of its geographical area. Karnataka is endowed with most magnificent forest in the country ranging from majestic evergreen forests of the Western Ghats to the scrub jungles of the plains. The state has 5 National Parks and 21 sanctuaries comprising about 17.3%of total forest area as protected area for wildlife and biodiversity. The forests are classified as reserved (28,611 sq.km), covered (3,932 sq.km), unclassified (5,748 sq.km), village (124 sq.km) and private (309 sq.km)

Geographically, the state can be divided into three major zones: Coastal zone, Western Ghats and Eastern plains.

1. Coastal Zone: Karnataka's coastline extends over a length of 320 km with numerous river mouths, lagoons, bays, cliffs, sand dunes and long beaches. Karnataka has no major delta formation. There are 26 estuaries with more than 70000 ha water spread area and 8000 ha brackish water area, making the three coastal districts of Karnataka (Udupi, Uttara Kannada, Dakshina Kannada) very rich in marine, estuarine and riverine biodiversity.
2. Western Ghats: The Western Ghats of Karnataka is one of the 36 global priority hotspots for conservation and one of the four on the Indian subcontinent stretching North-South along the western peninsular India for about 1600 km. Western Ghats are the habitats for elephants and endangered  lion tailed macaque. Western Ghats are also known as Sahyadri mountain ranges in Karnataka.  60% of Western Ghats are located in Karnataka.  The average elevation is about 1200 meters MSL and it receives rainfall between 3000 and 4000mm. The average annual temperature is around 15°C. There are over 4500 species of flowering plants (38% endemic) 330 butterflies (11% endemic), 156 reptiles (62% endemics) 508 species birds (4% endemic)
3. The Eastern Plains: The Deccan plateau forms the eastern plains of Karnataka. This forms 2/3 part of the geographical area of Karnataka. This area receives low and scanty rainfall and the temperature is very high. Therefore, the vegetation is thorny scrub. The topography is generally rocky. The total forest area in this region accounts only 7% of the geographical area.

Karnataka has 30 districts and 4 administrative divisions to manage these three principal regions. Belgaum is the largest district.

Fig.4.1: Study area –Karnataka

Table 1: Districts of Karnataka and their forest cover types

5. Materials and Method

Fig.5.1: Method Followed

Around 350 literatures were reviewed and data were collected covering flora and fauna (Bird, Fish, Mammal, amphibian, Reptile, Butterfly, Mollusca, Ant, spider etc.) (Fig. 5.1).The information has been compiled through published literature review and from online portals such as Science Direct (http://sciencedirect.com), Google scholar, Digital flora of Karnataka and Karnataka Biodiversity Portal. Management plans of protected areas collected from the Karnataka Forest Department. QGIS and Google earth (http://earth.google.com) were used to find out the coordinates of the location of species. Other information such as family name, conservation status, endemism, habitat, legal protection, distribution ranges were collected from Indian Biodiversity Portal (http://wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity), IUCN Red list etc. All these data were compiled and a detailed database was created for each taxa. The Database include Location Details, Scientific name, Habit, common names in English, Hindi, Kannada language, conservation status, endemism, legal protection details, Habitat preference and distribution ranges in India and Karnataka and manuscript details (Such as article name, authors name, Journal name and details, year of publication etc.). Quantum GIS (QGIS) was used to create the distribution map. To understand the distribution of various species in each district of Karnataka, the distribution ranges of each species group were overlaid with the shape file of each village district layers. A querying function is implemented to retrieve data from each file and generation of maps. Querying includes displaying based on respective species name, family name and conservation status. Distribution maps for various taxa for each district were created according to the distribution and conservation status by the spatial overlay of each district village layer and conservation status of each group. Extinct (EX), Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), Vulnerable (VU), Near Threatened (NT), Least Concern (LC), Data Deficient (DD) and Not Evaluated (NE) are different categories of the species as per IUCN Red List.

Table 2: Sample Database Table

Table 2: Sample Database Table

5.1 GIS

A geographic information system (GIS) is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of geographical data.  The key word to this technology is Geography, meaning that some of the data is spatial.  In other words,data is somehow referenced to locations on the earth.People and methods are combined with geospatial software and tools, to enable spatial analysis, manage large datasets, and display information in a map/graphical form (Austin, 1990). We can map real-world features' spatial location and visualise their spatial relationships. It can be used to identify where the most and least are, to find places that meet their criteria or to see the relationships between places and also we can map the change in a specific geographic area to anticipate future conditions, decide on a course of action, or to evaluate the results of an action or policy (Salem,2003).

QGIS is a free and open-source cross-platform desktop geographic information system (GIS) application that supports viewing, editing, and analysis of geospatial data. QGIS is free desktop geographical information system (GIS) application with user friendly features. Dispersion or distribution pattern shows the spatial relationship between population members within the habitat. In QGIS, species distribution maps can be generated using the Google Maps and Google Earth plugins (Graser, 2013).

6. Results and Discussion

Inventorying and Mapping of Biodiversity – District-wise

The state of Karnataka is endowed with diverse ecosystems with rich biodiversity. The state has a great variety of soils, climate and topography. The district flora and fauna represent the micro unit of biodiversity of the country.

6.1 Flora

6.2 Birds

6.3 Fishes

6.4 Mammals

6.5 Amphibians

6.6 Reptiles

6.7 Other Texa

6.8 Spatial Distribution

7. Conclusion

The state of Karnataka is a part of the highly biodiversity regions in India. The data gathered from around 350 international and national peer reviewed literature and the forest management plans at the district level. The current study documented  and it is discovered that increase in flora from 4500 species to 5164 species, birds from  508 to 812 species, fishes from 405 to 428, Mammals from 150 to 249 species, amphibians 135 to 165, reptiles 156 to 247 and butterflies from 330 to 438 species. The district level spatial distribution maps of flora and fauna reveal that the highest distribution is found in Uttara Kannada district, the central part of Wester Ghats, and the lowest in Koppal and Raichur districts. The review exemplifies that Karnataka has 5164 floral species belongs to 294 families and Fabaceae is the largest family with 490 species.812 species of birds are present which comes under 119 families and Accipitridae is the largest family with 53 species. Karnataka has 420 fish  species from 63 families in which Cyprinidae is dominant.249 mammalian species belongs to 45 families found across Karnataka.165 species amphibians and 15 families and 247  reptiles specie belongs to 26 families are documented from Karnataka.438 butterflies under 16 families are present in Karnataka.

Spatial distribution of flora and fauna based on the conservation status revealed that, 10% of total amphibian population in Karnataka is in endangered and then followed by mammals (9%), fish (9%), reptiles (4%) birds (1%) and a very small quantity of plants. Spatial distribution as per the conservation status also reported that birds had the highest number of least concern species (87%), and then fish (69%), mammals (66%), reptiles (49%),amphibians(39%) and plants had the least number of species under least concern category (8%). Conservation status of 90% of flora, 16% of reptiles, 11% of fishes, 5 % of birds, 4 % of amphibians and 3% of mammal species were not evaluated.

Cynometra beddomei is extinct plant species reported from Dakshina Kannada. Equus caballus which belongs to Equidae is the extict mammal species found in Karnataka .Philautus leucorhinus, Philautus variabilis and Philautus nasutus are the extinct amphibian species in Karnataka

According to the geographical variation of Karnataka, the floral and faunal diversity and number of threatened species are higher in the central Western Ghats region of Karnataka, such as Uttara Kannada, Shimoga, Dakshina Kannada and Kodagu have rich biodiversity areas with high number high risk categories. Much of the protected areas show high degree of floral and faunal distribution. The diversity of species, presence of globally threatened species in the state of Karnataka, especially in the Sahyadri region makes the Karnataka one of biodiversity rich states of India. The current communication helps to understand the significance of biodiversity in Karnataka and helps decision makers in effective planning as well as conservation strategies.

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