Geoinformatics is a
GIS is the tool of geoinformatics, in essence, a set of tools that enable the collection, storage, representation, retrieval, analysis and display of spatial data. The UK Association for Geographic Information (AGI) defines in its "GIS Dictionary" a GIS as, "A system for capturing, storing, checking, integrating, manipulating, analysing and displaying data which are spatially referenced to the Earth. The GIS is normally considered to involve a spatially referenced computer database and appropriate applications software. " Many technologies come together under the heading GIS, including remote sensing, computerised mapping, databases and spatial analysis.
Input to a GIS is traditionally via keyboard; digitising, which produces vector data; or scanning, which produces raster data. In addition, there are new hybrid techniques which use expert systems techniques to create vector data, with minimal human intervention. The majority of input to a GIS continues to come from paper maps, although data will increasingly be captured directly through remote sensing, aerial photography or ground survey.
The selection of this input depends on several factors such as the type of data (raster or vector), required accuracy and cost. In general, the more accurate the data required, the more expensive it is to collect. Output includes maps, graphs, tables and photographs.
GIS are applied to solve many problems, traditionally those involving networks, such as roads, or spatial resources. Network applications include vehicle routing and scheduling as well as energy efficiency analysis of public and private transportation. GIS are also employed to solve broader spatial problems such as urban and regional planning, natural resource management and environmental impact assessment.
GIS systems are also becoming more widely used in non-traditional mainstream business areas. This includes the area of geomarketing whereby spatial data, for example postcode information, is used to help companies target their products or services more effectively. Mass mailings to consumers in their homes, should, in theory, be more efficient using a GIS, as instead of just having a list bearing names and addresses, vendors will have information on how these addresses are physically related to one another. Thus distribution of goods or services for particular locations can be more effectively planned.
Other such applications include retailing. Customers of a supermarket may be asked for their postcode which is then used to establish how far they have travelled and where the gaps in the network of stores may be.
Telecom companies have also become important buyers of GIS and many European telecomms companies are using GIS for network planning. Deutsche Telekom is implementing what is claimed to be the world's largest GIS installation, which involves using network data currently held on a variety of paper plans, data files and index cards. When complete, it will cover 11,000 workstations (running Smallworld GIS software) in 113 offices in Germany. Called Megaplan, the project is designed to provide up to date and consistent data on existing telecomms networks and planned extensions.
Insurance is another obvious example, whereby data such as accident or crime statistics can be plotted geographically allowing insurance companies to adjust their tariffs more effectively. The availability of such detailed information opens up the possibility of abuse however and has prompted concern over so-called "redlining" of particular areas of high crime or risk of subsidence. Residents of those areas can risk being denied insurance cover.
The "Holy Grail" of commercial GIS has for some time been the in-car navigation market. According to some predictions (GIS Europe, March 1994) this market could be worth ECU 65bn over the next two decades. With increasing congestion on Europe's roads and the realisation that more roads can lead to more cars, the idea is to work with the existing road networks and greatly increase the "intelligence" of cars to take advantage of them.
The on-board use of computers, digital road maps, sensors, infra-red frequency beacons and detectors should allow vehicles to exchange information with roadside data collection and monitoring systems about traffic conditions, congestion, weather conditions and alternative routes.
Such a potentially lucrative market has captured the attention of GIS vendors as well as car makers such as Renault and Daimler Benz.
A significant project in this area is the European Digital Road Map (EDRM) project. Two rival consortia ECT/NavTech and the European Digital RoadMap Association (EDRA) have been formed and are developing their databases. EDRA claims to have completed coverage for the whole of Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and Italy. It also has coverage of metropolitan areas in France, Switzerland and Austria, while EGT/NavTech claims to have coverage for most German cities, Brussels, Paris, Lyon, Marseilles, Turin and Milan.
Early in 1994, BMW became the first European car manufacturer to offer an in-car navigation system for its top of the range 7-Series models. These cars combine the CARIN, an in-car navigation system from Philips Electronique of France and the EGT/NavTech database.
According to a study carried out for ITS America, the Japanese Government spent some US$1.9bn between 1985 and 1992 on in-car navigation. This was in addition to that spent by motor manufacturers. Toyota's chairman Shoichiro Toyoda claimed that some 700,000 Japanese motorists are already using in-car navigation systems. In the US a US$200m "national automated highway" research programme with a consortia lead by General Motors has recently been announced.
GIS applications are focusing on
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Geographic Information Systems: A Buyer's guide, HMSO, 1993 (tel +44 171 873 9090, fax +44 171 873 8200)
GIS For Business, GeoInformation International, 1995 (tel +44 1223 423020, fax +44 1223 425787)
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