Subject: Part 1: The role of scavenging poultry in Integrated Farming Systems
in Ethiopia
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Second FAO Electronic Conference on Tropical Feeds
Livestock Feed Resources within Integrated Farming Systems
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
THE ROLE OF SCAVENGING POULTRY IN INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEMS IN ETHIO=
PIA=20
(PART 1)
Tadelle Dessie, Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Centre,
PO Box 32, Alemaya University of Agriculture, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia
E-mail: dzarc.ncic@padis.gn.apc.org
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
INTRODUCTION
Rural poultry production in Ethiopia represents a significant part of=
the=20
national economy in general and the rural economy in particular, and=
=20
contributes 98.5 and 99.2% of the national egg and poultry meat produ=
ction,=20
respectively (AACMC, 1984), with an annual output of 72,300 metric to=
nnes of=20
meat and 78,000 metric tonnes of eggs (ILCA, 1993).
Comparatively little research and development work has been carried o=
ut on=20
village poultry, despite the fact that they are more numerous than=
=20
commercial chickens, accounting for around 99% of the total number in=
the=20
country. Studies carried out at the College of Agriculture, Alemaya (=
Bigbee,=20
1965) and Wolita Agricultural Development Unit (WADU) (Kidane, 1980) =
and by=20
the Ministry of Agriculture (1980) indicated that average annual egg=
=20
production of the native chicken was 30-60 eggs under village conditi=
ons and=20
that this could be improved to 80-100 eggs on-station.
A recent study at Asela Livestock Farm revealed that the average prod=
uction=20
of local birds around Arsi was 34 eggs/hen/year, with an average egg =
weight=20
of 38 g (Brannang and Persson, 1990). These results look unimpressive=
when=20
compared with egg-laying exotic breeds which can produce more than 25=
0=20
eggs/hen/year, with an average egg weight of 60 g. They show that loc=
al=20
birds are poor producers of small sized eggs. But smallholder poultry=
=20
production using unimproved stock can be the most appropriate system =
in=20
practice, with low input levels that makes the best use of locally av=
ailable=20
resources. Village poultry are important providers of eggs and meat a=
s well=20
as being valued in the religious and cultural life of society in gene=
ral and=20
the rural people in particular.
As pointed out by Sonaiya (1990), in recent years, rural poultry have=
=20
assumed a much greater role as suppliers of animal protein for both r=
ural=20
and urban dwellers. This is because of the recurrent droughts, diseas=
e=20
outbreaks (rinderpest and trypanosomiasis) and decreased grazing land=
, which=20
have resulted in significantly reduced supplies of meat from cattle, =
sheep=20
and goats. Poultry is the only affordable species to be slaughtered a=
t home=20
by resource-poor farmers, as the prices of other species are too high=
, and=20
have increased substantially in recent years. Consumption of pork is =
not=20
allowed for religious reasons for most Ethiopians (Orthodox Christian=
s and=20
Muslims) but fortunately there are no such cultural or religious tabo=
os in=20
relation to the consumption of poultry and poultry products.
Ten years ago, per capita consumption was about 57 eggs and about 2.8=
5 kg of=20
chicken meat per annum in Ethiopia (Alemu, 1987), which are very low =
figures=20
by international standards. Although there are no current data on the=
=20
present per capita consumption of poultry products, a similar or even=
=20
declining trend is probable because the population of Ethiopia has in=
creased=20
by about 3% per annum over the last ten years without any marked incr=
ease in=20
the production of poultry meat and eggs. Innovative ideas and program=
mes are=20
therefore required to promote rural poultry production for the improv=
ement=20
of rural household incomes and nutrition.
Poultry production is an effective means of transferring wealth from =
the=20
high-income urban consumers to the poor rural and peri-urban members =
of the=20
community. Small scale poultry development should therefore concentra=
te on=20
the rural and peri-urban areas of the country. The focus of this stud=
y was=20
on villages in the central highlands of Ethiopia.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
PRESENT STRUCTURE OF POULTRY PRODUCTION IN ETHIOPIA
The total poultry population in Ethiopia is estimated to be 56.5 mill=
ion=20
(ILCA, 1993). Poultry production systems in Ethiopia show a clear=
=20
distinction between traditional, low input systems on the one hand an=
d=20
modern production systems using relatively advanced technology on the=
other=20
(Alemu, 1995). Ninety-nine per cent of the population consists of loc=
al=20
breed types under individual farm household management (Alamargot, 19=
87),=20
and the remaining 1% of birds are mainly in state-run modern producti=
on=20
systems, with a very small proportion in private units. Of the total=
=20
national egg and poultry meat production 98.5 and 99.2% respectively =
are=20
contributed by local birds (AACMC, 1984), resulting in an annual outp=
ut of=20
72,300 metric tonnes of poultry meat and 78,000 metric tonnes of eggs=
.
LARGE-SCALE COMMERCIAL SYSTEMS
Modern poultry production started in Ethiopia about 30 years ago, mai=
nly in=20
colleges and on research stations. The activities of these institutio=
ns=20
mainly focused on the introduction of exotic breeds to the country an=
d the=20
distribution of these breeds to farmers, including management, feedin=
g,=20
housing and health care packages.
The history of poultry production in the industrialized countries may=
offer=20
some basic knowledge and guidelines for poultry development in the=
=20
developing countries as a whole and in Ethiopia in particular, but in=
view=20
of the particular conditions in different countries and regions, spec=
ific=20
research and development approaches are needed to determine which are=
the=20
optimum production systems and development strategies.
Most of the research work is still being carried out on intensive pou=
ltry=20
production, with modern housing and sophisticated feeding systems. Ho=
wever,=20
the great majority of poultry production is based on extensive rural=
=20
production systems where the results of current research are often no=
t=20
applicable.
Today, a number of large commercial state farms have been established=
and=20
private poultry farms are starting to operate in the country. This wo=
uld=20
seem to be a positive trend in increasing the supply of animal protei=
n for=20
the Ethiopian people, whose primary source of protein is of plant ori=
gin,=20
because poultry are efficient converters of by-products and grains in=
to eggs=20
and meat, and have a fast turnover and rapid growth rate. In spite of=
these=20
advantages, including intensive poultry production in the livestock=
=20
development strategy must be questioned, due to the fact that commerc=
ial=20
poultry compete with human beings for scarce food grains. This statem=
ent is=20
justified if we consider the composition of diets used on the industr=
ial=20
poultry farms, where the major ingredients are high quality cereals l=
ike=20
maize and wheat (AACMC, 1984).
If we consider commercial poultry production under Ethiopian conditio=
ns,=20
where there is a national shortage of grain to feed an ever-increasin=
g human=20
population and a negative trade balance, then allocating hard currenc=
y to=20
import breeding stock, medicines, vitamin-mineral pre-mixes and conce=
ntrates=20
to support intensive poultry farms will involve critical political as=
well=20
as economic decisions. So, in a country like Ethiopia, the outcome wi=
ll be=20
the converting of food that resource-poor people can usually afford t=
o buy,=20
to smaller amounts of luxury food items that only the minority wealth=
y=20
members of the society can afford.
No attempts have been recorded to evaluate the performance of exotic =
birds=20
under local farmer conditions. The only serious on-station attempt ca=
rried=20
out in Ethiopia was a comparative study of the performance of six dif=
ferent=20
exotic breeds, namely: Brown Leghorn, White Leghorn, Rhode Island Red=
, New=20
Hampshire, Light Sussex and Barred Rock at Debre Zeit Agricultural Re=
search=20
Centre. This study showed that the White Leghorn was the best perform=
ing=20
exotic layer breed (DZARC, 1984).
RURAL POULTRY PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
There is no generally accepted definition of rural poultry production=
, and=20
various production systems have been described by a number of authors=
,=20
including Huchzermeyer (1967), Aini (1990), Cumming (1992), Alemu (19=
95) and=20
Tadelle and Ogle (1996a). The production systems are characterized as=
=20
including small flocks, with nil or minimal inputs, low outputs and p=
eriodic=20
devastation of the flocks by disease. Birds are owned by individual=
=20
households and are maintained under a scavenging system, with little =
or no=20
inputs for housing, feeding or health care. Typically the flocks are =
small=20
in number with each flock containing birds from each age group, with =
an=20
average of 7-10 mature birds per household, consisting of 2-4 adult h=
ens, a=20
male bird and a number of growers of various ages. Tadelle and Ogle (=
1996a),=20
Gunaratne et al. (1992) and Cumming (1992) also described village pou=
ltry=20
flocks in Asia as including 10-20 birds of different ages per househo=
ld.=20
According to AACMC (1984), in Ethiopia there is an average of six ind=
igenous=20
birds per household and, according to Sonaiya (1990), the average flo=
ck size=20
in Africa ranges from 5-10 birds. As described by Tadelle and Ogle (1=
996a),=20
the village poultry production system is characterised by minimum inp=
uts,=20
with birds scavenging in the backyard, and no investments beyond the =
cost of=20
the foundation stock, a handful of grain each day and possibly simple=
night=20
enclosures.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
PAST RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ATTEMPTS
Comparatively little research and development work has been carried o=
ut on=20
village chickens, despite the fact that they are usually more numerou=
s than=20
commercial chickens in most developing countries (Cumming, 1992) and =
they=20
have been marginalized by planners and decision makers (Panda 1987), =
which=20
is certainly true in Ethiopia. Few attempts have been made to increas=
e=20
protein supply by improving the egg and meat production potential of =
local=20
birds, and upgrading and crossbreeding with exotic germplasm has been=
the=20
main focus of the research and development organizations. For the las=
t three=20
decades, scientists and the government have promoted schemes in which=
=20
cockerels from selected strains are reared up to 15 to 20 weeks of ag=
e,=20
mainly on government poultry stations, and then exchanged for local=
=20
cockerels owned by rural subsistence farmers.
The study reported by Tadelle and Ogle (1996a) in the central highlan=
ds of=20
Ethiopia shows that there has been an introduction of exotic breeds t=
o the=20
three villages at various times and in different forms, as cockerels,=
=20
pullets and fertile eggs, but their impact in upgrading the village c=
hickens=20
has been minimal. The farmers were given advice on improved feeding a=
nd=20
housing and were asked to remove all remaining local cockerels. In ad=
dition,=20
improved hens were introduced to boost egg production in co-operative=
based=20
intensive poultry farms in rural Ethiopia, but most of these projects=
=20
collapsed, mainly due to inadequate feed supply, management, medicine=
s and=20
discontinuation of the schemes. However these approaches led to only =
limited=20
improvement, due to the high mortality rate of the modern breeds beca=
use of=20
their lack of adaptation to the rural environment, poor management, u=
ltimate=20
discontinuation of the schemes and, above all, the farmers' lack of i=
nterest=20
and awareness, because the programmes were usually planned without fa=
rmer=20
participation and without parallel improvement in management and feed=
ing.
Many cross-breeding projects failed because the crosses were not acce=
pted by=20
local people, who feared they would be vulnerable to harsh village=
=20
conditions. Above all, those development strategies did not pay atten=
tion to=20
local social and cultural aspects of poultry production. For example,=
=20
farmers prefer to have double-combed cocks for sacrifice purposes, in=
=20
addition to their colour preferences (Tadelle and Ogle 1996a). Local=
=20
scavenging chickens, in addition to providing cash income, have nutri=
tional,=20
cultural and social functions which require consideration from planne=
rs,=20
professionals and farmers, which is rarely given. However, planning a=
nd=20
execution of research and development work on local birds could resul=
t in=20
considerable improvement in egg production performance, and a reducti=
on in=20
the high chick mortality.
Tadelle and Ogle (1996) described the scavenging feed resource base (=
SFRB)=20
for local birds in the central highlands of Ethiopia as variable, dep=
ending=20
on the season and rainfall. This is in agreement with the results fro=
m three=20
different production systems (two from Sri Lanka and one from Indones=
ia)=20
(Cumming, 1992 and Roberts, 1992). So strategic supplementation of bi=
rds=20
according to age and production status can be a suitable solution.
Generally, non-genetic factors such as poor nutrition, disease (mainl=
y=20
Newcastle disease) and other management practices have a much greater=
effect=20
than genetics on production parameters under scavenging systems. In t=
he=20
results of an on-farm trial in the central highlands of Ethiopia,=
=20
vaccination for Newcastle disease, improved feeding systems, regular=
=20
provision of water and small night enclosures for scavenging birds we=
re very=20
important as a way of achieving optimum production.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF RURAL POULTRY PRODUCTION
Rural poultry represent a significant part of the rural economy. This=
=20
segment of production in Africa as a whole represents an asset value =
of US$=20
5.75 billion (Sonaiya, 1990). In addition to their contribution to hi=
gh=20
quality animal protein and as a source of easily disposable income fo=
r farm=20
households, rural poultry integrate very well and in a sustainable wa=
y into=20
other farming activities, because they require little in the way of l=
abour=20
and initial investment compared to other farm activities (Tadelle and=
Ogle,=20
1996a). A number of authors, including Veluw (1987), Sonaiya (1990), =
and=20
Gunaratne et al. (1992), have also reported that rural poultry play a=
=20
significant role through their contribution to the cultural and socia=
l life=20
of rural people.
The existence of poultry in the household does not imply necessarily =
that=20
the farmers are willing and in a position to expand poultry productio=
n.=20
Experience has shown that intensive persuasion is needed to convince =
them to=20
introduce regular watering and feeding, to clean the birds' night she=
lter=20
and to take care of the young chicks, before starting any research or=
=20
development programme to attain the genetic potential of the local bi=
rds.=20
The first critical step in rural poultry development is therefore the=
=20
encouragement of farmers to change their attitude towards poultry kee=
ping=20
and the traditional system.
It is very difficult to determine the most important purpose of keepi=
ng=20
birds in each household because it is impossible to compare the spiri=
tual=20
benefit of sacrifice with the financial benefit of a sale. A ranking =
of=20
purposes based on the number of birds used has very little to do with=
the=20
order of importance, and understanding this is a considerable challen=
ge for=20
development workers. For a better understanding of the role played by=
=20
poultry in the lives of rural people, it is necessary to know exactly=
the=20
purposes for which households keep poultry. The five major uses and b=
enefits=20
of poultry and eggs in rural societies in the central highlands of Et=
hiopia=20
are summarized as follows: eggs for hatching (51.8%), sale (22.6%) an=
d home=20
consumption (20.2%), and production of birds for sale (26.6%), sacrif=
ice=20
(healing ceremonies) (25%), replacement (20.3%) and home consumption=
=20
(19.5%). In some cases farmers give live birds (8.6%) and eggs (5.4%)=
as a=20
gift to visitors and relatives, as starting capital for youths and ne=
wly=20
married women. They also invite special guests to partake of the popu=
lar=20
dish "doro wat", which contains both chicken meat and eggs and is con=
sidered=20
to be one of the most exclusive national dishes (Tadelle and Ogle, 19=
96a),=20
as confirmed by Veluw (1987) in Northern Ghana. Birds are also given =
as=20
sacrificial offerings in traditional worship, and finally they perfor=
m a=20
valuable sanitary function in the villages through eating discarded f=
ood and=20
cockroaches, for example.
The feed resource base for the scavenging chicken production system=
=20
described has no alternative use and, if they were not present, other=
=20
scavengers, particularly dogs and crows would perform this function, =
with no=20
associated benefit to the farming community.
Poultry keeping in most of the developing countries is the responsibi=
lity of=20
women. Tadelle and Ogle (1996a), in a study of three villages, found =
that it=20
is the women that look after the birds, and the earnings from the sal=
e of=20
eggs and chickens are often their only source of cash income. It is=
=20
therefore important to actively involve women in the process of poult=
ry=20
improvement, a feature which has been neglected in the past. Most of =
the=20
poultry extension workers, vaccinators and key poultry farmers are me=
n. In=20
some parts of Ethiopia, contacts between women and male extension wor=
kers=20
are restricted by cultural and religious factors and information has =
to be=20
passed indirectly through their husbands. It is important to plan pou=
ltry=20
development projects in such a way that women participate actively as=
=20
poultry advisers, extension workers, and vaccinators, as well as poul=
try=20
farmers.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
INPUT-OUTPUT RELATIONSHIPS
Despite the fact that more than 70% of the poultry population in Afri=
ca=20
(Table 1; Sonaiya, 1990) and 99% of the poultry population in Ethiopi=
a=20
(Alamargot, 1987) consists of local birds, their contribution to farm=
=20
household and national income is not in proportion to the high number=
s.=20
Productivity is observed to increase in direct proportion to the leve=
l of=20
confinement (Sonaiya, 1990) and other feeding and management factors,=
up to=20
a certain level of production corresponding to the upper limits of th=
e=20
genetic potential of the local birds.
This system of production, although it appears primitive, can be=20
economically efficient because, although the output from the individu=
al=20
birds is low, the inputs are even lower or virtually non-existent (Sm=
ith,=20
1990). The low output is expressed as low egg production, small sized=
eggs,=20
slow growth and low survivability of chicks (Smith, 1990; Tadelle and=
Ogle=20
1996a) but small management changes, for example regular watering, ni=
ght=20
enclosures, discouraging them from getting broody, vaccination for co=
mmon=20
diseases and small energy and protein supplements can bring about=
=20
significant improvements in the productivity of local birds (Tadelle =
and=20
Ogle 1996c). In the central highlands of Ethiopia, indigenous birds k=
ept=20
under semi-intensive management conditions produced 100 eggs per annu=
m and=20
under this system of management ten clutches of eggs were produced pe=
r year=20
as compared with three to four produced under normal scavenging syste=
ms=20
(Tadelle and Ogle, 1996c). In general, with minimal additions of inpu=
ts,=20
improving the existing management and changing the attitudes of farme=
rs can=20
bring about considerable improvements in terms of egg production, gro=
wth and=20
increasing the level of survival.
Table 1. Percentage contribution of local birds in selected African a=
nd=20
Asian countries to the poultry population.
Country % Contribution Reference
Sri Lanka 28 Fonseka (1987)
Zimbabwe 30 Kulube (1990)
Cameroon 65 Agbede et al. (1990)
Cote d'Ivoire 75 Diambra (1990)
Kenya 80 Mbugua (1990)
Gambia 90 Andrews (1990)
Malawi 90 Upindi (1990)
Nigeria 91 Adene (1990)
Ethiopia 99 Alamargot (1987)
Bangladesh 99 UNDP/ FAO (1983)
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
FEED RESOURCES AND REQUIREMENTS
The feed resource base for rural poultry production is scavenging and=
=20
consists of household waste, anything edible found in the immediate=
=20
environment and small amounts of grain supplements provided by the wo=
men. As=20
shown by Tadelle and Ogle (1996a and b), the scavenging feed resource=
base=20
(SFRB) is not constant. The portion that comes as a grain supplement =
and=20
=66rom the environment varies with activities such as land preparatio=
n and=20
sowing, harvesting, grain availability in the household and season an=
d the=20
life cycles of insects and other invertebrates. From the results of t=
he same=20
work, it is also possible to conclude that protein supply may be crit=
ical,=20
particularly during the drier months, whereas energy may be critical =
during=20
the rainy season, which agrees with the conclusions of Cumming (1992)=
, who=20
describes the feed resource as variable, depending on the season and=
=20
rainfall. In the absence of an event which diminishes the flock bioma=
ss=20
(number * mean live weight), such as disease or occurrence of a major=
=20
festival, the village flock will normally be at the maximum biomass t=
hat can=20
be supported by the SFRB. Any additions to the village flock which in=
crease=20
the biomass will result in increased survival pressure and selection =
against=20
the weakest members of the flock.
According to the finding of Tadelle and Ogle (1996b), the feed resour=
ce is=20
deficient in protein, energy and probably calcium for layer birds, an=
d this=20
is confirmed from the results of supplementation trial, which show th=
at=20
supplementation of local birds with food sources containing energy, p=
rotein=20
and a calcium source brings a considerable increase in egg production=
.
FEED REQUIREMENTS AND SUPPLEMENTATION OF LOCAL LAYING HENS
There is no doubt that feed supply is one of the main constraints to =
rural=20
poultry production, and it has been calculated that scavenging birds =
are=20
usually capable of finding feed for their maintenance needs and about=
40=20
eggs per year, but higher levels of production require supplementary =
feed.=20
The nutritional status of local laying hens from the chemical analysi=
s of=20
crop contents, assuming this accurately reflects the feeds consumed,=
=20
indicates that the %DM (52.3 =B112.5), CP (9.1 =B12.3), Ca (0.9 =B10.=
4), P (0.7=20
=B10.3) and ME (11.9 =B10.9 KJ/g) were below the requirements for egg=
=20
production, indicating the importance of supplementation.
Compound feeds are usually not available in remote areas, or are too=
=20
expensive, so it is therefore necessary to use locally available mate=
rials=20
such as household waste and cheap conventional and non-conventional f=
eed=20
resources such as brans and oil-seed cakes. The choice of raw materia=
ls for=20
poultry feed is limited and it is not possible to formulate balanced =
diets=20
in rural Ethiopia. Sub-optimal supplementary rations may be economica=
lly=20
justified under rural conditions and accordingly this supplementary f=
eeding=20
should complement, but not replace, the feeds scavenged by the birds =
and=20
must be tested and examined from an economic point of view. Special=
=20
attention will need to be paid to local sources of minerals and vitam=
ins,=20
although scavenging birds would normally find a significant proportio=
n of=20
their requirements for vitamins and trace minerals, although probably=
not=20
for calcium in the case of laying hens.
According to Tadelle and Ogle (1996c), it is possible to attain daily=
=20
production per hen of over 30% using a supplement of 30 g/day maize a=
nd 30=20
g/day noug cake, 28% from 30 g maize and over 20% from 30 g per day p=
er bird=20
noug cake which is more than double the 13.9% from scavenging only. T=
his=20
result is also supported by the study of Islam et al. (1992) who show=
ed that=20
by giving a supplement that provided 30% of the daily energy and prot=
ein=20
requirements of local birds it is possible to produce as many eggs as=
the=20
un-supplemented Fayoumy breed in the villages, and that egg productio=
n from=20
scavenging birds increased by a factor of three when they received a=
=20
supplement covering 50% of their dietary needs.
PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS OF LOCAL LAYING HENS
The protein requirement of high producing laying hens varies from 16-=
18% of=20
the diet, to meet the needs of egg production, maintenance and growth=
of=20
body tissues, and feather growth, but this also depends on the energy=
=20
content of the feed. In addition to the above, the feed consumption a=
nd=20
protein requirements are influenced by a number of factors, the most=
=20
important being size of the bird, stage of production and ambient=
=20
temperature.
It is possible to estimate the requirements for protein factorially.=
=20
According to Nesheim et al. (1979), a fresh egg contains 66% water, 1=
2%=20
protein, 10% fat, 1% carbohydrates and 11% ash. The average weight of=
a=20
local hens egg is 38 g (Sazzad, 1986; Brannang and Persson, 1990; Tad=
elle=20
and Ogle, 1996c). Thus a 38 g egg contains 4.56 g protein and, at an=
=20
efficiency of protein utilization of 55% (Scott et al., 1982), hens m=
ust=20
consume 8.29 g protein per egg. Harris, (1966) indicated that the end=
ogenous=20
nitrogen excretion is estimated to be 2.55 g per day for a bird weigh=
ing=20
1.14 kg. According to Scott et al. (1982), protein required for feath=
er=20
growth is 0.49g/bird/day. The sum total of calculated protein require=
ments=20
for all these functions is 11.194 and 11.317 g/day for birds producin=
g a 35g=20
egg in phase one and a 38 g egg in phase two of lay. As described by =
Tadelle=20
and Ogle (1996b), the mean crude protein (CP) in the crop contents is=
9.1=20
=B12.3% which is below the above calculated requirement of the local =
laying=20
hens. Protein deficiency was even more serious in the short rainy and=
dry=20
seasons, when the CP content of the crop contents was 7.6% and 8.7%,=
=20
respectively. This is confirmed by the results of the supplementation=
trial=20
reported by Tadelle and Ogle (1996c), where provision of additional p=
rotein=20
in the form of noug cake increased egg production by a factor of two =
as=20
compared with scavenging birds not receiving a supplement.
ENERGY REQUIREMENT OF LOCAL LAYING HENS
In moderate environmental temperatures, high producing White Leghorn =
hens=20
require 300-320 kcal of metabolizable energy per hen per day. Local b=
irds=20
are low producers of small sized eggs and their live weight is lower =
than=20
that of the White Leghorn. According to Scott et al. (1982), the net =
energy=20
requirement of adult hens is NEm=3D 83 kcal/kg BW^0.75. Thus for a lo=
cal hen=20
weighing 1.13 kg (overall mean), the NEm is 90.97 kcal/hen/ day. Sinc=
e this=20
figure is approximately 82% of MEm value, then 90.97/0.82 =3D 111=
=20
kcal/hen/day, and adding 50% of this value for activity, the total=
=20
requirement for a non laying hen without travelling energy will be 16=
6.5=20
kcal/hen/day. However, in addition to that, local birds need more ene=
rgy for=20
travelling, and Bessie (1989) reported that a scavenging layer travel=
led=20
about 4 km per day at an average environmental temperature of 20 deg =
C which=20
implies a requirement of approximately 107 Kcal per day, giving a tot=
al=20
requirement of 273.5 kcal/day. The mean true metabolizable energy of =
286 =B123=20
Kcal from calculated values is sufficient to meet calculated requirem=
ents=20
for a non laying hen only.
=2E../...
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
FAO ELECTRONIC CONFERENCE:
LIVESTOCK FEED RESOURCES WITHIN INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEMS
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
DISCLAIMER: Neither the conference organizers nor FAO accept
any legal responsibility for either the contents of this
message or any copyright laws that the person sending this
electronic message may have violated.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
TO COMMENT: Unless you want to reply only to the person
sending this information, please send your comments to the
address: TFCONF2-L@MAILSERV.FAO.ORG
or TFCONF2-ABS-L@MAILSERV.FAO.ORG
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
From TFConf2-L-Owner@mailserv.fao.org Sat Jan 11 00:29:30 1997
Received: from iisc.ernet.in by ces.iisc.ernet.in (ERNET-IISc/SMI-4.1)
id AAA28186; Sat, 11 Jan 1997 00:29:30 +0500
Received: from mail-relay-BLR.ernet.in by iisc.ernet.in (ERNET-IISc/SMI-8.6.5)
id AAA08515; Sat, 11 Jan 1997 00:34:56 +0530
Received: from faov02 (faov02.fao.org [193.43.36.3]) by mail-relay-BLR.ernet.in (8.6.11/8.6.9) with ESMTP id XAA13771 for ; Fri, 10 Jan 1997 23:06:22 +0530
Received: from reprocess_list.faov02.fao.org by faov02.fao.org
(PMDF V5.0-7 #14636) id <01IE21CX92DS96W0GJ@faov02.fao.org> for
TFConf2-L-Expand@faov02.fao.org; Fri, 10 Jan 1997 17:38:13 +0100
Received: from faov01.fao.org (faov01.fao.org)
by faov02.fao.org (PMDF V5.0-7 #14636) id <01IE21CV99I895N7Z4@faov02.fao.org>
for TFCONF2-L@faov02.fao.org; Fri, 10 Jan 1997 17:38:08 +0100
Received: from msmail.fao.org by faov01.fao.org (PMDF V5.0-7 #3703)
id <01IE21BBASAO0055C7@faov01.fao.org> for TFCONF2-L@MAILSERV.FAO.ORG; Fri,
10 Jan 1997 17:36:54 +0100
Date: Fri, 10 Jan 1997 17:22:00 +0000 (GMT)
From: "Dalibard, Christophe (AGAP)"
Subject: Part 2: The role of scavenging poultry in Integrated Farming Systems
in Ethiopia
To: TFCONF2-ALL
Errors-to: TFConf2-L-Errors@mailserv.fao.org
Message-id: <01IE21CVALQQ95N7Z4@faov02.fao.org>
MIME-version: 1.0
Content-type: TEXT/PLAIN; CHARSET=ISO-8859-1
Content-transfer-encoding: QUOTED-PRINTABLE
Status: R
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Second FAO Electronic Conference on Tropical Feeds
Livestock Feed Resources within Integrated Farming Systems
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
THE ROLE OF SCAVENGING POULTRY IN INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEMS IN ETHIO=
PIA=20
(PART 2)
Tadelle Dessie, Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Centre,
PO Box 32, Alemaya University of Agriculture, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia
E-mail: dzarc.ncic@padis.gn.apc.org
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
=2E../...
PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY OF VILLAGE BIRDS
The production level of scavenging hens is generally low, with only 4=
0-60=20
small sized eggs produced per bird per year under smallholder managem=
ent=20
conditions. According to the results of Tadelle and Ogle (1996a), the=
total=20
output of scavenging birds is low, not only because of low egg produc=
tion,=20
but also due to high chick mortality as half of the eggs are hatched =
to=20
replace birds that have died, and the brooding time of the mother bir=
d is=20
long in order to compensate for its unsuccessful brooding. Smith (199=
0)=20
estimates that under scavenging conditions the reproductive cycle con=
sists=20
of a 10 day laying phase, a 21 day incubation phase and finally a 56 =
day=20
brooding period. This implies a theoretical maximum number of 4.2 clu=
tches=20
per hen each year, although in reality the number is probably 2-3.
Overall the system is quite productive in relation to the very low in=
put=20
levels and this is underlined by McArdle (1972) who states that the n=
et=20
output from poultry rearing is higher in scavenging systems compared =
to=20
commercial systems, and the scavenging flock is not in competition wi=
th=20
humans for feed. This is true if we consider the input-output relatio=
n only.
Chick mortality represents a major loss in scavenging village chicken=
=20
production systems (Table 2), and reports from different countries sh=
ow that=20
50-70% of chicks die between hatching and the end of brooding.
Table 2. Reported chick mortality in rural production systems in diff=
erent=20
African and Asian countries in the first 6 to 8 weeks of age.
Country % Mortality Reference
Sri Lanka 65 Gunaratne et al. (1992)
46 Roberts (1994)
Indonesia 79 Kingston and Cresswell (1982)
56 Hadiyanto et al. (1994)
Northern Ghana 80 Veluw (1987)
Ethiopia 61 Tadelle and Ogle (1996a)
Cote d'Ivoire 50 Diambra (1990)
Kingston (1980) and Kingston and Cresswell (1982) in Indonesia, Rober=
ts=20
(1992) in Sri Lanka and Matthewman (1977) in Nigeria calculated morta=
lity=20
rates of chicks as being 69%, 65% and 53%, respectively, up to 6 week=
s of=20
age. Alamargot (1987) also reports on chick mortality in Ethiopia, an=
d=20
during some severe epidemics, rates as high as 80% have been recorded=
.=20
According to Tadelle and Ogle (1996a), the overall chick mortality wa=
s 61=20
=B117% (n=3D160) in the first two months after hatching, and is highe=
r when=20
there was a disease outbreak in the area. Various authors attribute t=
hese=20
losses to different causes. For example, Roberts (1992) reported that=
in=20
Indonesia losses were due to a combination of poor nutrition, predato=
rs and=20
various disease factors and, although predators were blamed for the m=
ajority=20
of the losses, other biological and environmental factors made signif=
icant=20
contributions. The newly hatched chicks have access to the same feed=
=20
resource base as stronger and more vigorous members of the flock but =
are=20
unable to compete. In addition, the low protein and energy content of=
the=20
available feed, the low hatching weight of the chicks, high ambient=
=20
temperatures and other associated factors are major causes of losses,=
both=20
directly, and also by increasing vulnerability to predation and=20
susceptibility to disease.
Newcastle disease is the most important disease recognised in tropica=
l=20
countries in village poultry production systems (Table 3). Disease wa=
s cited=20
as the most important problem by most of the members of the community=
with=20
whom it was discussed, reducing both the number and productivity of t=
he=20
birds, and the problem intensified after the villagization programme =
in the=20
country (1984-86). The timing of the disease outbreaks before the=
=20
villagization programme was usually at the beginning of the rainy sea=
son,=20
that is at the end of May and beginning of June, but after villagizat=
ion it=20
remains a problem throughout the year, even though it is still more s=
erious=20
at the beginning of the rainy season.
Sonaiya (1990), after summarising the reports from six African countr=
ies,=20
reported that the mortality caused by Newcastle disease ranges from 5=
0-100%=20
per annum and that severity is higher in the dry season, whereas the =
disease=20
is more widespread in the rainy season in the central highlands of Et=
hiopia=20
(Tadelle and Ogle, 1996a). The farmers do not have any preventive med=
icine=20
or practice for this fatal disease, and only after the start of an ou=
tbreak=20
do they treat their birds with socially accepted medicines (Tadelle a=
nd=20
Ogle, 1996a). However the effectiveness of these treatments is not=
=20
satisfactory.
Although the local chickens are slow growing and poor layers of small=
sized=20
eggs, they are however ideal mothers, good sitters and hatch their ow=
n eggs,=20
excellent foragers, hardy and possess some degree of natural immunity=
=20
against common diseases. These traits are of great importance as the =
farmers=20
cannot afford to buy expensive concentrates and incubators, which at =
the=20
moment are considered necessary for raising exotic birds. Brannang an=
d=20
Persson (1990) reported that 50% and 75% exotic blood birds did not s=
how any=20
signs of broodiness at the Asela Livestock Farm. However, as reported=
by=20
Panda (1987) in India, the productivity of the Kadaknath or indigenou=
s fowl=20
can be improved without sacrificing any of the characteristics requir=
ed by=20
village fowls. Egyptian scientists, taking a different approach, achi=
eved=20
significant improvements in egg production of over 21% recently by si=
mple=20
cross-breeding between two local strains raised in the traditional wa=
y in=20
the near-tropical conditions of upper Egypt. This success illustrates=
a way=20
of stemming the genetic erosion of local poultry breeds. Although the=
re is a=20
lot of evidence in the literature about genetic improvement resulting=
from=20
heterosis and crossbreeding techniques with regards to egg production=
and=20
growth rate, so far little research effort has been directed towards =
these=20
in Ethiopia. Some information is provided by Brannang and Persson (19=
90),=20
who reported average yearly egg production of 129 and 114 eggs and 48=
g and=20
53 g mean egg weight, for birds with a 50% and 75% exotic blood level=
s,=20
respectively. The only other attempt to evaluate the performance of=
=20
crossbreeds with different exotic blood levels was made at Debre Zeit=
=20
Agricultural Research Centre, and involved crossing local birds with =
White=20
Leghorns to determine the egg production performance of the cross bre=
eds. A=20
preliminary analysis showed that the annual egg production of the 50%=
and=20
62.5% crosses was 146 and 193 eggs respectively (DZARC, 1991). This s=
hows=20
that it is possible to improve egg number and egg weight by crossing,=
but=20
the results only apply to on-station conditions and no information is=
=20
available for crossbred birds kept under local farmer management cond=
itions.=20
In any case it is not possible to substantially improve egg productio=
n if=20
the hens incubate and rear their own chicks.
Table 3. Reported village birds mortality caused by Newcastle disease=
in=20
selected African countries
Country % Mortality Reference
Togo 50 Aklobessi (1990)
Sudan 50 El Zubeir (1990)
Nigeria 70 Nwosu (1990) Comoros
80 Mohammed (1990)
Ethiopia 80 Alamargot (1987)
Morocco 100 Houadfi (1990)
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
CONCLUSIONS
=46rom the results of these studies it can be concluded that the scav=
enging=20
system is an appropriate system for the rural areas and that it makes=
=20
relatively good use of locally available resources. The requirement n=
ow is=20
to improve these production systems in order to make the best possibl=
e use=20
of these resources. The system is characterized by no or few inputs a=
nd a=20
low output level. Although they appear primitive, these systems can b=
e=20
economically efficient because, although the output from the individu=
al=20
birds is low, the inputs are even lower or virtually non-existent.
The system is also characterised by huge chick mortality in the first=
two=20
weeks of life, caused by different factors such as disease, predators=
, and=20
the hostile environment for newly hatched chicks. The feed resource b=
ase for=20
local birds in the villages is from scavenging and is inadequate for =
the=20
production of more than around 40 eggs/birds/year. However the result=
s from=20
different workers show that supplementation of energy and protein in=
=20
addition to other management changes can increase egg production by m=
ore=20
than 100%.
Rural poultry production is an important part of the farming systems =
and=20
needs relatively few additional resources and inputs from farmers to =
achieve=20
substantial improvements in productivity and profitability by changin=
g to=20
semi-scavenging systems. However, because of very high mortality rate=
s,=20
particularly due to Newcastle disease, farmers are generally reluctan=
t to=20
invest in improvements in feeding, health care and housing for exampl=
e. The=20
development of a new heat tolerant vaccine that can be administered v=
ia the=20
feed opens up the possibility of significantly reducing mortality in =
village=20
poultry, which should make producers more positive towards geneticall=
y=20
improved birds and inputs to improve feeding and housing.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
RECOMMENDATIONS
* Village poultry production deserves greater attention from governme=
nt,=20
research and development organizations and, above all, from rural far=
mers.
* Preferential access to feed by the newly hatched chicks should be g=
iven=20
through some kind of creep feeding system.
* Strategic supplementation of both protein and energy, providing sma=
ll=20
night enclosures, regular water and disturbing the broody bird result=
s in=20
more than 100% increase in egg production of local birds.
* Vaccination against Newcastle disease with the new heat resistant v=
accine=20
administered via the feed will substantially reduce mortality.
* It is important to focus on working with women's groups, both to us=
e their=20
knowledge about poultry production and to improve their incomes.
* On-farm and on-station trials on new vaccines for the prevention of=
=20
Newcastle disease are needed, particularly the heat resistant vaccine=
which=20
does not need cold storage and can be administered through the feed.
* Genetic improvement should be introduced only when the current syst=
ems=20
have been improved in terms of dietary supplementation, housing, cont=
rolling=20
Newcastle disease and regular water and management and, in due course=
, to=20
change the system to semi-scavenging.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
REFERENCES
Adene, D. F., 1990. The management and health problems of rural poult=
ry=20
stock in Nigeria. CTA-Seminar proceedings on smallholder rural poultr=
y=20
production. 9-13 October 1990, Thessloniki, Greece, 2:175-182.
Agbede, G., Demey, F., Verhuls A. T., Bell, J. G., 1990. The impact o=
f=20
Newcastle disease in the traditional chicken farms of Cameroon. CTA-S=
eminar=20
proceedings on smallholder rural poultry production. 9-13 October 199=
0,=20
Thessloniki, Greece, 2: 49-54.
Aini, I., 1990. Indigenous chicken production in South East Asia. Wor=
ld's=20
Poultry Sci. Journal, 46:51-56.
Aklobessi, K. K., 1990. Smallholder Rural Poultry production in Togo.=
=20
CTA-Seminar proceedings on smallholder rural poultry production. 9-13=
=20
October 1990, Thessloniki, Greece, 2: 37-42.
Alamargot, J., 1987. Avian pathology of industrial poultry farms in=
=20
Ethiopia. Proceedings of the First National Livestock Improvements=
=20
Conference 11-13 February 1987, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia, pp 114-117.
Alemu, S., 1987. Small scale poultry production. Proceedings of the F=
irst=20
National Livestock Improvements Conference 11-13 February 1987, Addis=
Abeba,=20
Ethiopia, pp 100-101.
Alemu, Y., 1995. Poultry production in Ethiopia. World's Poultry Scie=
nce=20
Journal, 51: pp 197-201.
Andrews, P., 1990. Rural poultry development in The Gambia. CTA-Semin=
ar=20
proceedings on smallholder rural poultry production 9-13 October 1990=
,=20
Thessaloniki, Greece, 2: pp 81-85.
Australian Agricultural Consulting and Management Company (AACMC), 19=
84.=20
Livestock sub sector review, Volume 1, Annex 3.
Bessei, W., 1990. Experiences with rural poultry development projects=
.=20
CTA-Seminar proceedings on smallholder rural poultry production 9-13 =
October=20
1990, Thessaloniki, Greece, 2: pp 53-60.
Bigbee, D. G., 1965. The management of the native chickens of Ethiopi=
a.=20
Miscellaneous publication, No. 5. HSIU, College of Agriculture, Alema=
ya.
Brannang, E. and Persson, S., 1990. Ethiopian Animal husbandry, Uppsa=
la,=20
Sweden, 127 pp.
Cumming, R.B., 1992. Village chicken production: Problems and potenti=
al.=20
Spradbrow, P. B. (Editor) Proceedings of an International Workshop on=
=20
Newcastle disease in village chickens, control with Thermostable Oral=
=20
Vaccines 6-10 October, 1991, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, pp 21-24.
Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Centre (DZARC), 1991. Annual Researc=
h=20
Report 1990/1991. Debre Zeit, Ethiopia.
Diambra, O. H., 1990. State of Smallholder Rural Poultry production i=
n Cote=20
d'Ivoire. CTA- Seminar proceedings on smallholder rural poultry produ=
ction=20
9-13 October 1990, Thessaloniki, Greece, 2: pp 107-116.
El Zubeir, A., 1990. Smallholder Rural Poultry production in the Suda=
n.=20
CTA-Seminar proceedings on smallholder rural poultry production 9-13 =
October=20
1990, Thessaloniki, Greece, 2: pp 217-226.
Ethiopian Mapping Agency (EMA), 1981. National atlas of Ethiopia, Add=
is=20
Abeba, Ethiopia.
Feltwell, R. and Fox, S., 1978. Practical poultry feeding, Faber and =
Faber=20
limited, Great Britain, pp 36-59.
Gunaratne, S. P., Chandrasiri, A. D., Mangalika Hemalatha W. A. P., a=
nd=20
Roberts, J. A. , 1992. The Productivity and Nutrition of Village Chic=
kens in=20
Sri Lanka. Spradbrow, P. B. (Editor) Proceedings of an International=
=20
Workshop on Newcastle disease in village chickens, control with Therm=
ostable=20
Oral Vaccines 6-10 October, 1991, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, pp 21-24.
Harris, L. E., 1966. Biological energy interrelationships and glossar=
y of=20
energy terms. Publ. 1411, National Academy of Sciences-National Resea=
rch=20
Council, Washington, D.C.
Houadfi, EL. M., 1990. Rapport sur la production avicole et problemes=
lies=20
aux elevages traditionnels au Marco. CTA-Seminar proceedings on small=
holder=20
rural poultry production 9-13 October 1990, Thessaloniki, Greece, 2: =
pp=20
161-171.
Huchzermeyer, F. W., 1967. Some thoughts on poultry keeping in Africa=
n areas=20
of Rhodesia under subsistence economy conditions. Rhodesian Agricultu=
re=20
Journal, 64: 133-139.
Huque, Q.M.E. and M.J.Hossain.1991. Production potentials of ducks un=
der=20
scavenging system of management. Bangladesh Journal of Animal Sci.,=
=20
20(1&3):119-122.
International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA), 1983. Research on f=
arm and=20
livestock productivity in the central Ethiopian highlands: Initial re=
sults,=20
1977-1980. ILCA research report, No. 4, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia.
International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA), 1993. Handbook of A=
frican=20
Livestock Statistics. ILCA, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia
Islam, M.K., Hussain, M.A., Haque, M.F. and Paul, D.C., 1992. Perform=
ance of=20
Fayomi Poultry Breed with Supplemental Ration Under Farmers' Manageme=
nt.=20
Abidur, R., (Editor) Proceedings of the Fourth National Conference of=
=20
Bangladesh Animal Husbandry Association, December 26 - 27, 1992.
Kassimo, M., 1990. Rapport sur L'Operation coqs raceurs a' anjouan Co=
mores.=20
CTA-Seminar proceedings on smallholder rural poultry production 9-13 =
October=20
1990, Thessloniki, Greece, 2: 55-65.
Kidane, H., 1980. Performance of F1 Crossbred Birds. Wollaita Agricul=
tural=20
Development unit. Animal Husbandry and Breeding. Wollaita Sodo, Ethio=
pia=20
Bulletin No. 4: 38 pp.
Kingston, D. J., 1980. The productivity of scavenging chicken in some=
=20
villages of West Java, Indonesia. Proceedings 1980 South Pacific Poul=
try=20
Science Convention. 13-16 October 1980 Auckland, New Zealand, pp 228-=
237.
Kingston, D. J., and Creswell, D. C., 1982. Indigenous chickens in=
=20
Indonesia: population and production characteristics in five villages=
in=20
West Java. Bogor, Indonesia, Research Institute for Animal Production=
,=20
Report No. 2: 3-8.
Kulube, K., 1990. Small holder rural poultry production in Zimbabwe.=
=20
CTA-Seminar proceedings on smallholder rural poultry production 9-13 =
October=20
1990, Thessaloniki, Greece, 2: 263-270.
Matthewman, R., 1977. A survey of small livestock production at villa=
ge=20
level in the derived savanna and lowland forest zones of South West N=
igeria=20
(Monograph, Univ. of Reading, 1977)
Mbugua, N. P., 1990. Rural smallholder poultry production in Kenya.=
=20
CTA-Seminar proceedings on smallholder rural poultry production 9-13 =
October=20
1990, Thessaloniki, Greece, 2: 119-131
McArdle, A.A., 1972. Methods of poultry production in developing area=
. World=20
Animal Review. 2: 28-32.
Ministry of Agriculture (MOA), 1980. Development Strategy of Animal B=
reeding=20
and Improvement: 10 year Development Strategy. Animal Breeding and=
=20
Improvement Team, MOA, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia.
Nesheim, M. C., 1986. Austic, R. E., and Card, L. E., 1979. Poultry=
=20
production. 57 pp.
Nwosu, C. C., 1990 The state of small holder rural poultry production=
in=20
Nigeria. CTA-Seminar proceedings on smallholder rural poultry product=
ion=20
9-13 October 1990, Thessloniki, Greece, 2:183-194.
Panda, B., 1987. Role of poultry in socio-economic development of sma=
ll=20
farmers in India. Asian Livestock, 12: pp 145-148.
Roberts, J.A., 1992. The scavenging feed resource base in assessments=
of the=20
productivity of scavenging village chickens. Spradbrow, P. B. (Editor=
)=20
Proceedings of an International Workshop on Newcastle disease in vill=
age=20
chickens, control with Thermostable Oral Vaccines 6-10 October, 1991,=
Kuala=20
Lumpur, Malaysia, 29-32.
Savory, C.J., 1989. The importance of invertebrate food to chicks of=
=20
gallinaceous species. Proceeding of Nutrition Society No. 48: 113-133=
.
Sazzad, M.H., 1986. Reproductive performance of Desi hens under scave=
nging=20
and intensive systems of rearing. Proceedings of first Annual Livesto=
ck=20
Research Workshop, Livestock Research Institute, Savar, Bangladesh.
Sazzad, M.H., S.M.H. Mamotazul and A.U. Asaduzzamn, 1988. Growth patt=
ern of=20
Desi and Khaki Campbell ducks under rural condition. Indian Journal o=
f=20
Poultry Sci. 23(2):165-166.
Scott, M. L., Nesheim M. C. and Young, R. J., 1982. Nutrition of the=
=20
chicken. pp 48-92.
Smith, A .J., 1990a. Poultry-Tropical Agriculturist series. CTA, Macm=
illan=20
Publishers, London. pp 179-184.
Smith, A .J., 1990b. The integration of rural production into the fam=
ily=20
food supply system. CTA-Seminar proceedings on smallholder rural poul=
try=20
production 9-13 October 1990, Thessloniki, Greece, 1: 15-128.
Sonaiya, E. B., 1990 The context and prospects for development of=
=20
smallholder rural poultry production in Africa.CTA-Seminar proceeding=
s on=20
smallholder rural poultry production 9-13 October 1990, Thessaloniki,=
=20
Greece, 1: 35-52.
Tadelle, D. and Ogle, B. 1996a. A survey of village poultry productio=
n in=20
the central highlands of Ethiopia. M.Sc Thesis, Swedish Univeristy of=
=20
Agricultural Sciences, pp 22.
Tadelle, D. and Ogle, B. 1996b. Nutritional status of village poultry=
in the=20
central highlands of Ethiopia as assessed by analyses of crop content=
s and=20
carcase measurements. M.Sc Thesis, Swedish Univeristy of Agricultural=
=20
Sciences, pp 15.
Tadelle, D. and Ogle, B. 1996c. Effect of maize (Zea mays) and noug=
=20
(Guizotia abyssinica) cake supplementation on egg production performa=
nce of=20
local birds under scavenging conditions in the central highlands of=
=20
Ethiopia. M.Sc Thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, p=
p 14.
Teketel, F., 1986. Studies on the meat production potential of some l=
ocal=20
strains of chickens in Ethiopia. PhD Thesis, J.L. University of Giess=
en, pp=20
210.
Upindi, B. G., 1990. Smallholder Rural Poultry production in Malawi.=
=20
CTA-Seminar proceedings on smallholder rural poultry production 9-13 =
October=20
1990, Thessaloniki, Greece, 2: 141-146.
UNDP/FAO. 1983. Rural poultry improvement project of the Govt. of the=
=20
People's Republic of Bangladesh. No. BGD/82/003. Project document, Dh=
aka,=20
Bangladesh.
Veluw, V. K., 1987. Traditional poultry keeping in Northern Ghana. IL=
EIA,=20
3(4): 12-13.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
FAO ELECTRONIC CONFERENCE:
LIVESTOCK FEED RESOURCES WITHIN INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEMS
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
DISCLAIMER: Neither the conference organizers nor FAO accept
any legal responsibility for either the contents of this
message or any copyright laws that the person sending this
electronic message may have violated.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
TO COMMENT: Unless you want to reply only to the person
sending this information, please send your comments to the
address: TFCONF2-L@MAILSERV.FAO.ORG
or TFCONF2-ABS-L@MAILSERV.FAO.ORG
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
From TFConf2-L-Owner@mailserv.fao.org Sat Jan 11 00:23:51 1997
Received: from iisc.ernet.in by ces.iisc.ernet.in (ERNET-IISc/SMI-4.1)
id AAA28170; Sat, 11 Jan 1997 00:23:51 +0500
Received: from mail-relay-BLR.ernet.in by iisc.ernet.in (ERNET-IISc/SMI-8.6.5)
id AAA08409; Sat, 11 Jan 1997 00:29:17 +0530
Received: from faov2b (faov2b.fao.org [193.43.36.4]) by mail-relay-BLR.ernet.in (8.6.11/8.6.9) with ESMTP id XAA13794 for ; Fri, 10 Jan 1997 23:08:33 +0530
Received: from reprocess_list.faov02.fao.org by faov02.fao.org
(PMDF V5.0-7 #14636) id <01IE217T4HWW95N7X6@faov02.fao.org> for
TFConf2-L-Expand@faov02.fao.org; Fri, 10 Jan 1997 17:34:05 +0100
Received: from faov01.fao.org (faov01.fao.org)
by faov02.fao.org (PMDF V5.0-7 #14636) id <01IE217PJD0095N6QH@faov02.fao.org>
for TFCONF2-L@faov02.fao.org; Fri, 10 Jan 1997 17:33:58 +0100
Received: from msmail.fao.org by faov01.fao.org (PMDF V5.0-7 #3703)
id <01IE2167DG8G0052V6@faov01.fao.org> for TFCONF2-L@MAILSERV.FAO.ORG; Fri,
10 Jan 1997 17:32:46 +0100
Date: Fri, 10 Jan 1997 17:19:00 +0000 (GMT)
From: "Dalibard, Christophe (AGAP)"
Subject: Twenty sixth paper: The role of scavenging poultry in Integrated
Farming Systems in Ethiopia
To: TFCONF2-ALL
Errors-to: TFConf2-L-Errors@mailserv.fao.org
Message-id: <01IE217PKP8295N6QH@faov02.fao.org>
MIME-version: 1.0
Content-type: TEXT/PLAIN; CHARSET=US-ASCII
Content-transfer-encoding: 7BIT
Status: R
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Second FAO Electronic Conference on Tropical Feeds
Livestock Feed Resources within Integrated Farming Systems
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Dear Participant,
Here is the abstract of the twenty sixth paper from D. Tadelle.
Questions that might stimulate discussion on this topic
include:
1. What is your experience with semi-scavenging systems and, in particular,
with strategic supplementation?
2. What are the alternatives to cereals for feeding poultry in rural
conditions?
3. What are the major constraints for improving the rural semi-scavenging
sector? Are gender issues one of them in your country?
4. Do you consider it appropriate to develop and improve the low input/low
output sector, instead of supporting the commercial or industrial one which
requires expensive and imported inputs?
Christophe Dalibard, Rene Sansoucy, Andrew Speedy (moderators)
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
PS: In order to read the tables of the paper, a non
proportional font such as courier 12 should be used
and margins should be adjusted if necessary.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
THE ROLE OF SCAVENGING POULTRY IN INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEMS IN ETHIOPIA
Tadelle Dessie, Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Centre,
PO Box 32, Alemaya University of Agriculture, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia
E-mail: dzarc.ncic@padis.gn.apc.org
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
ABSTRACT
This paper focuses on the role of scavenging poultry in integrated farming
systems and is mainly based on previous studies and past research and
development attempts to improve scavenging poultry in Ethiopia. Village
poultry production is an integral part of a balanced farming system and has
a unique position in the rural household economy, supplying high quality
protein to the family. In this paper, the present structure, socio-economic
aspects, constraints, potential and future prospects of scavenging poultry
in the mixed farming systems are described, and recommendations are also
made to change the present scavenging system to semi-scavenging system.
KEY WORDS: Poultry, scavenging, semi-scavenging, village, Ethiopia, mixed
farming system
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
FAO ELECTRONIC CONFERENCE:
LIVESTOCK FEED RESOURCES WITHIN INTEGRATED FARMING SYSTEMS
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
DISCLAIMER: Neither the conference organizers nor FAO accept
any legal responsibility for either the contents of this
message or any copyright laws that the person sending this
electronic message may have violated.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
TO COMMENT: Unless you want to reply only to the person
sending this information, please send your comments to the
address: TFCONF2-L@MAILSERV.FAO.ORG
or TFCONF2-ABS-L@MAILSERV.FAO.ORG
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~