Brain Cancer Update
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. BRAIN CANCER UPDATE .
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BRAIN CANCER UPDATE
In the U.S., brain cancer has been steadily increasing about 0.7%
per year since 1973. This steady increase is noteworthy by
itself. However, among people over age 65, brain cancer has been
increasing 2.9% each year, an astonishingly rapid rise in a
cancer that is almost always fatal in the elderly. At this rate,
the disease is doubling every 23 years among the elderly. Today
roughly 17,500 Americans (9600 males, 7900 females) are diagnosed
with new brain cancers each year.[1] During the period 1973-1990
brain cancer steadily increased in other industrialized countries
as well, especially among the elderly.[2]
Naturally the question arises, are these increases real or do
they simply reflect better diagnosis? Several careful studies of
this question have concluded that much of the increase in brain
cancer is real, and does not merely reflect better diagnosis.[3]
For one thing, the steady increases began before the invention of
modern diagnostic equipment. New imaging techniques (cat scans
in the mid-1970s, and magnetic resonance imaging [MRI] in the
1980s) did make the diagnosis of brain tumors easier and more
accurate. When cat scans and MRI became available, brain tumors
formerly missed were now found; on the other hand, non-cancer
brain problems formerly misdiagnosed as brain tumors could now be
properly identified as something besides cancer. Furthermore,
analysis has determined that the AIDS epidemic is not the cause
of the observable brain cancer increases.[3]
Although the causes of brain cancers remain a mystery, in all
likelihood the problem has multiple sources including dental
x-rays;[4] occupational exposures to chlorinated hydrocarbons,
organic solvents, paints and oils;[5] pesticides;[6]
electromagnetic fields (EMF);[7] hormonal status in women;[8] and
N-nitroso compounds.[9]
Because brain cancers are increasing in both men and women,
occupational exposures are unlikely to be a major cause. A new
study published this month suggests that the artificial
sweetener, aspartame (marketed as Nutrasweet and Equal), may be
implicated.[10] At least half of the American people --knowingly
or not --now expose themselves to aspartame in "diet" food
products and soft drinks. Aspartame is 180 times as sweet as
sugar, so provides sweet taste with fewer calories.
When G. D. Searle, the pharmaceutical manufacturer, sought
approval for aspartame from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) in 1973, a long controversy ensued.[11] Some scientists
within the FDA suspected that aspartame might cause brain cancer
in laboratory animals. If this were shown to be true, aspartame
would have been banned under federal law. FDA initially approved
aspartame for certain food uses in 1974, but two citizens --John
W. Olney, M.D., and James S. Turner, challenged that decision and
requested a full hearing. To settle the controversy and avoid
the expense of a full hearing, FDA Commissioner Donald Kennedy
established an independent Public Board of Inquiry (PBOI)
consisting of 3 qualified scientists from outside the agency.
The PBOI reviewed the available data and drew conclusions from
it. On October 1, 1980, the PBOI issued its decision, saying
"the evidence suggested that aspartame might induce brain tumors"
in laboratory rats and, accordingly, the PBOI concluded that
aspartame "should not be approved for marketing until further
animal testing was conducted to resolve the brain tumor issue."
In response to the PBOI's findings, FDA revoked Searle's license
to sell aspartame.[11,pg.38289]
However, later that same year (1981) a new FDA Commissioner,
Arthur Hull Hayes, Jr., appointed by President Ronald Reagan,
simply reversed the decision of the PBOI and licensed aspartame
for "dry" uses as a substitute for sugar.[11] No new studies
were initiated to shed light on the question of brain cancer.
Under the guidance of Dr. Hayes, FDA simply reinterpreted the old
data and asserted that the reinterpreted data showed that brain
cancer was not a problem. Thus aspartame became a legal --though
intensely controversial --food additive.
In 1983, Commissioner Hayes extended Searle's aspartame license
to include its use as a sweetener in "diet" soft drinks, and
aspartame sales took off. In 1985 Monsanto bought Searle, and
Monsanto now aggressively markets Nutrasweet for "diet"
sweeteners, selling roughly 20 million pounds of aspartame for
use in the U.S. each year at $90 per pound, plus unknown
quantities overseas. On average, Americans ingest 38 grams of
aspartame per person per year.[12] (Meanwhile, intake of total
calories per person per day in the U.S. has increased from 3300
in 1970 to 3700 in 1990, so "diet" foods and drinks are not
having the desired effect, overall.)[13]
The aspartame study published this month, by John W. Olney of
Washington University in St. Louis, suggests that the steep
increases in brain cancer in Americans in the 1980s and 1990s may
have been caused by exposure to aspartame.
Olney offers three reasons for concern:
(1) The kinds of cancer rising most rapidly in people
(glioblastomas) are the same kind found in 3.8% of aspartame-fed
rats in one of Searle's studies;
(2) Monsanto asserts that aspartame could not cause cancer
because it breaks down into harmless constituents in the human
stomach,[14] but Olney points to a 1993 study showing that
aspartame can be nitrosated and therefore might be expected to
become a N-nitroso compound in the human stomach. N-nitroso
compounds are potent carcinogens, some linked to brain tumors.[15]
(3) Olney analyzes the National Cancer Institute's (NCI) data[1]
and finds two sharp increases in brain cancers. He believes
aspartame might have caused these increases because it was
introduced rapidly, whereas other suspected causes of brain
cancer (listed above) were introduced gradually and would not be
expected to cause sharp increases. Olney says cancer requires
several cell injuries, and older people may acquire many such
injuries during their lives and may thus be ready to be "pushed
over the edge" by exposure to aspartame. This could explain the
short delays between introduction of aspartame to the American
diet and the rapid rises in brain cancer that Olney points to in
the NCI data. (Cancers are usually delayed by a decade or more
after exposure to a cancer-causing agent, but Olney points to
brain cancer increases only a couple of years after FDA approved
aspartame.)
Wherever the truth lies, FDA is unlikely at this point to
re-examine the safety of aspartame. To do so would be, in some
sense, to admit the haste --perhaps it could even be termed
foolhardiness --of its earlier decision to ignore the evidence of
brain tumors in rats fed aspartame.
The issue back in 1980 was this: In one Searle study, 3.8% of
aspartame-fed rats got brain tumors. What was the "normal" rate
of brain tumors in this strain of rat (known as Sprague-Dawley
rats)? Commissioner Hayes acknowledged that all of the data
available to answer this question had "flaws" (his word) because
the "normal" animals had ALL been exposed to experimental
chemicals or drugs, or had been fed irradiated food. However,
instead of ordering new studies that would avoid such flaws, to
answer this important question Dr. Hayes simply asserted that a
3.8% rate of brain tumors in aspartame-fed rats was not
significantly different from the rate of brain tumors in "normal"
rats.[11,pgs.38312-38315] Furthermore, when the Commissioner
applied two statistical tests (of his own choosing) to the data
in this study, those tests showed significant increases in brain
cancers among female rats fed aspartame. The Commissioner then
removed one of the aspartame-fed rats from the study, asserting
that its brain tumor had not been caused by aspartame. After the
removal of this rat, the cancer increases were no longer
statistically significant.[11,pg.38320] Thus FDA approval of
aspartame appears to have been tainted by decisions based on
something other than science. It seems reasonable to ask that
such approval be reconsidered now, given that human brain cancers
are steadily and rapidly increasing.
Nevertheless, FDA has dug in its heels on this issue, and it
apparently will be left to independent researchers to examine the
health consequences of exposing half (or more) of the population
to aspartame. Given that funding for scientific research in the
U.S. --including research at academic institutions --is
increasingly controlled by private corporations, and not by
government or other independent sources, it is difficult to see
where the necessary research funds could come from. In any case,
a huge experiment is being conducted now on more than 100 million
Americans. Whether anyone cares to analyze the data from this
experiment, or not, remains to be seen.
--Peter Montague
(National Writers Union, UAW Local 1981/AFL-CIO)
============================================================
[1] Benjamin F. Hankey and others, "Brain and Other Nervous
System [Cancers]," in Barry A. Miller and others, editors, SEER
CANCER STATISTICS REVIEW 1973-1990 [NIH Publication No. 93-2789]
(Bethesda, Maryland: National Cancer Institute, 1993, pgs.
III.1-III.20. And: Nigel H. Greig and others, "Increasing Annual
Incidence of Primary Malignant Brain Tumors in the Elderly,"
JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL CANCER INSTITUTE Vol. 82, No. 20 (October
17, 1990), pgs. 1621-1624.
[2] Yang Mao and others, "Increasing Brain Cancer Rates in
Canada," CANADIAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION JOURNAL Vol. 145, No. 12
(December 15, 1991), pgs. 1583-1591. And: M. Bahemuka and others,
"International Mortality from Primary Nervous System Neoplasms:
Distribution and Trends," INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
Vol. 17, No. 1 (1988), pgs. 33-38. And: Are Helseth and others,
"Neoplasms of the Central Nervous System in Norway," APMIS Vol.
96 (1988), pgs. 1066-1074. And: Anders Ahlbom and Ylva Rodvall,
"Brain Tumor Trends [letter]," THE LANCET November 25, 1989, pg.
1272. And: Y. Ben-Shlomo and G. Davey Smith, "[Untitled letter],"
THE LANCET November 25, 1989, pgs. 1272-1273. And: F. Levi and C.
La Vecchia, "Trends in Brain Cancer [letter]," THE LANCET October
14, 1989, pg. 917. And: Anders Ahlbom, "Some Notes on Brain Tumor
Epidemiology," in Devra Lee Davis and David Hoel, editors, TRENDS
IN CANCER MORTALITY IN INDUSTRIAL COUNTRIES [Annals of the New
York Academy of Sciences Vol. 609] (New York: New York Academy of
Sciences, 1990), pgs. 179-190. And: Devra Lee Davis and others,
"Is Brain Cancer Mortality Increasing in Industrial Countries?"
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL MEDICINE Vol. 19 (1991), pgs.
421-431. And: Devra Lee Davis and others, "Is Brain Cancer
Mortality Increasing in Industrial Countries?" in Devra Lee Davis
and David Hoel, editors, TRENDS IN CANCER MORTALITY IN INDUSTRIAL
COUNTRIES [Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences Vol. 609]
(New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1990), pgs. 191-204.
[3] Marie Desmeules and others, "Increasing Incidence of Primary
Malignant Brain Tumors: Influence of Diagnostic Methods," JOURNAL
OF THE NATIONAL CANCER INSTITUTE Vol. 84, No. 6 (March 18, 1992),
pgs. 442-445. And: Nancy L. Eby and others, "Increasing Incidence
of Primary Brain Lymphoma in the US," CANCER Vol. 62 (1988), pgs.
2461-2465. And: Peter Boyle and others, "Is the Increased
Incidence of Primary Malignant Brain Tumors in the Elderly Real?"
JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL CANCER INSTITUTE Vol. 82, No. 20 (October
17, 1990), pgs. 1594-1596. And: Mark. H. Werner and others, "The
Increasing Incidence of Malignant Gliomas and Primary Central
Nervous System Lymphomas in the Elderly," CANCER Vol. 76 (1995),
pgs. 1634-1642.
[4] S. Preston-Martin and others, "Risk factors for gliomas and
meningiomas in males in Los Angeles County," CANCER RESEARCH Vol.
49 (1989), pgs. 6137-6143. And: S. Preston-Martin and S.C. White,
"Brain and salivary gland tumors related to prior dental
radiography: implications for current practice," JOURNAL OF THE
AMERICAN DENTAL ASSOCIATION Vol. 120, No. 2 (1990), pgs. 151-158.
[5] S. Cordier and others, "Gliomas and exposure to wood
preservatives," BRITISH JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL MEDICINE Vol. 45
(1988), pgs. 705-709. And: Terry L. Thomas and Richard J.
Waxweiler, "Brain Tumors and Occupational Risk Factors,"
SCANDINAVIAN JOURNAL OF WORK, ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH Vol. 12
(1986), pgs. 1-15. And: Katherine Mallin and others,
"Occupational Cancer Mortality in Illinois White and Black Males,
1979-1984, for Seven Cancer Sites," AMERICAN JOURNAL OF
INDUSTRIAL MEDICINE Vol. 15 (1989), pgs. 699-717. And: M. Musicco
and others, "Gliomas and occupational exposure to carcinogens:
case-control study," AMERICAN JOURNAL OF EPIDEMIOLOGY Vol. 116
(1982), pgs. 782-790. And: R.M. Park, "Brain cancer mortality at
a manufacturer of aerospace electromechanical systems," AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL MEDICINE Vol. 17 (1990), pgs. 537-552. And:
Ross C. Brownson and others, "An Analysis of Occupational Risk
Factors for Brain Cancer," AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC HEALTH Vol.
80, No. 2 (February 1990), pgs. 169-172.
[6] A. Blair and others, "Lung cancer and other causes of death
among licensed pesticide applicators," JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL
CANCER INSTITUTE Vol. 71 (1983), pgs. 31-37. And: M. Musicco and
others, "A case-control study of brain gliomas and occupational
exposure to chemical carcinogens: the risk to farmers," AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF EPIDEMIOLOGY Vol. 128 (1988), pgs. 778-785.
[7] R.S. Lin and others, "Occupational exposure to
electromagnetic fields and the occurrence of brain tumors,"
JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL MEDICINE Vol. 27 (1985), pgs. 413-419.
And: W. Mack and others, "Astrocytoma risk related to job
exposure to electric and magnetic fields," BIOELECTROMAGNETICS
Vol. 12 (1991), pgs. 782-790.
[8] P.M. Black, "Brain Tumors, Part II," NEW ENGLAND JOURNAL OF
MEDICINE Vol. 324 (1991), pgs. 1555-1564. And: B. Schlehofer and
others, "Association between brain tumors and menopausal status,"
JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL CANCER INSTITUTE Vol. 84 (1992), pgs.
1346-1349.
[9] A. Koestner, "Characterization of N-nitrosourea-induced
tumors of the nervous system; their prospective value for studies
of neurocarcinogenesis and brain tumor therapy," TOXICOLOGIC
PATHOLOGY Vol. 18, No. 1 part 2 (1990), pgs. 186-192.
[10] John W. Olney and others, "Increasing Brain Tumor Rates: Is
There a Link to Aspartame?" JOURNAL OF NEUROPATHOLOGY AND
EXPERIMENTAL NEUROLOGY Vol. 55, No. 11 (November 1996), pgs.
1115-1123. And see: H.J. Roberts, "Does Aspartame Cause Human
Brain Cancer?" JOURNAL OF ADVANCEMENT IN MEDICINE Vol. 4, No. 4
(Winter 1991), pgs. 231-241. And see: Russell L. Blaylock,
EXCITOTOXINS; THE TASTE THAT KILLS (Santa Fe, N.M.: Health Press
[P.O. Drawer 1388, Santa Fe, N.M. 87504], 1994).
[11] Arthur Hull Hayes, Jr., "Aspartame: Commissioner's Final
Decision," FEDERAL REGISTER Vol. 46 (July 24, 1981), pgs.
38285-38342.
[12] Table 225 in STATISTICAL ABSTRACT OF THE UNITED STATES 1995
(Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1995).
[13] Table 224 in STATISTICAL ABSTRACT OF THE UNITED STATES 1995
(Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1995).
[14] Robert Frank, "Aspartame Critic Seeks More Research on
Possibility of Links to Brain Tumors," WALL STREET JOURNAL
November 8, 1996, pg. B5.
[15] S.E. Shephard and others, "Mutagenic Activity of Peptides
and the Artificial Sweetener Aspartame after Nitrosation," FOOD
AND CHEMICAL TOXICOLOGY Vol. 31 (1993), pgs. 323-329. And see
note 9.
Descriptor terms: brain cancer; statistics; x-rays; dental
x-rays; occupational safety and health; emf; n-nitroso compounds;
hormones; aspartame; nutrasweet; equal; searle; monsanto; fda;
food safety; john olney; james turner; donald kennedy; arthur
hull hayes, jr.; carcinogens;
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