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Summary 1 - Questions arising within the framework of ecological planning
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What are the natural geographical characteristics of the planning area?
· Description of landscape factors with the aid of geological, hydrological, pedological, botanical, zoological and climatological documentation.
- What ecosystem types are there?
- Which of the above-mentioned landscape factors are particularly significant to the ecosystem?
Feedback: Does the demarcation of the planning area take sufficient account of the ecosystem networks and functional connections?
· If not: (Proposals for) inclusion of areas recognised as important
Identification and evaluation of the suitability and sensitivity characteristics of natural resources as a basis for appraisal of land capability (suitability for certain uses) and sensitivity to specific burdens (cf. Table 1).
· Designation and geographical demarcation of areas with high potential (e.g. land with 'high agricultural recovery potential'; areas with high groundwater recharge);
· Designation and geographical demarcation of areas with high sensitivity to environmental influences (such as introduction of pollutants, sealing, soil erosion, division, lowering of the water table); flood plains, areas of little groundwater depth (marshes), flowing water systems, land susceptible to erosion, incidence of rare and endangered ecosystems (flora and fauna);
· Designation and geographical demarcation of sensitive land-uses (e.g. residential use, drinking water supplies, national and regional conservation area categories).
Type and extent of initial loading due to existing land-use patterns, impositions on natural resources
· Designation and geographical demarcation of areas with high initial loading and those with comparatively few such problems
· Identification of initial geostructural loading (e.g. due to settlement/infrastructure)
What existing or planned land-uses/requirements for land use are provided for in the integrated area or specialised area plans?
· Schedule of environmental land-uses?
· List of specialist planning objectives and measures, in terms of sectors
· Which land-uses impose a burden on which natural resources?
· Where do land-uses impose a burden on or disturb natural resources which in turn form the basis for other uses?
· Geographical demarcation of individual and overlapping land-use demands
· Establishment of concentrations and conflicts of use
· Why do conflicting uses occur (juxtaposition or geographical concentration of incompatible uses, overlapping), where is human health directly endangered (e.g. through pollutant contamination, inadequate hygiene etc.)?
What are the environmental impacts of these land-use demands and what effects do they have on the relevant resources to be protected?
· Establishment of cause/effect relationships
· Ascertainment of impact factors and the relevant resources to be protected (natural resources, human beings, cultural aspects)
What are the natural geographical characteristics of the planning area?
· Description of landscape factors with the aid of geological, hydrological, pedological, botanical, zoological and climatological documentation.
- What ecosystem types are there?
- Which of the above-mentioned landscape factors are particularly significant to the ecosystems?
Feedback: Does the demarcation of the planning area take sufficient account of the ecosystem networks and functional connections?
· If not: (Proposals for) inclusion of areas recognised as important
· Ascertainment of burdens/adverse impacts and their intensity based on indicators
How can the areas of impact be demarcated geographically?
· Ascertainment of local, regional and national scope and geographical/functional interactions
· Where do overlaps arise between usages which impose major adverse impacts?
· Feedback: does demarcation of the planning area take account of this?
What is the significance of the environmental burdens expected in the short and long term for national and regional development potential?
· Where is the sustainability of natural resources endangered?
· What restrictions are there on the exploitability of natural resources?
· What burdens are justifiable in view of existing development pressure?
· What economic problems are to be expected as a result of environmental damage?
What are the main points to be taken into account in an ecologically oriented target concept?
· What particular aspects of environmental and social compatibility have to be considered?
· What are the geographical and chronological target priorities?
· How should objectives be organised hierarchically (criteria)?
What potential and limits of land-use development exist (in the region) against the background of an ecologically oriented target concept?
· What are the alternatives to the existing general system of land-use development?
· What are the alternatives for individual specialist plans in different sectors?
For what (geographical and subject) areas should conservation, development and rehabilitation proposals be ascertained?
· What conservation, development and redevelopment measures should be proposed?
· What are the requirements in terms of conflict and risk avoidance and what are the possibilities over and above the measures referred to above?
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Recognition of environmental impacts and clarification of effective interactions (impact models) are important elements in the forecasting of environmental risks. The term "environmental impact" refers to the creation of modifications to the characteristics of the natural resources which may limit their productivity and the sustainability; these are called environmental effects.
The range of environmental impacts to be investigated includes not only direct effects on the location in question but also those affecting neighbouring areas (for ranges see GASSNER/WINKELBRANDT 1990) as well as potential secondary effects and cumulative effects. It is also necessary to consider remote effects (e.g. due to movement of atmospheric pollution) and long-term effects (accumulation of pollutants). The geographical overlap of ranges and distinctions as to type and intensity of environmental impacts results in a system of environmental loading zones which may, for example, reveal regional loading concentrations and indicate a need for action or priorities.
Depending on land-uses the environmental impacts to be expected are essentially as follows:
- pollutant emissions (gaseous, liquid, solid)
- noise emissions
- sealing through building, occupation of land area
- sectionalisation/obstruction of compensatory and functional areas
- soil loss through excavation; erosion
- soil compaction/structural change
- salination/degradation, humus depletion (degradation), over-fertilisation (salination)
- lowering of the water table
- alteration of runoff dynamics of regional water system
- exploitation of areas of vegetation/open spaces worthy of conservation.
Within the context of problem analysis and as the basis for problem-oriented planning of objectives and measures it is necessary to establish interactive relationships between those causing and those affected by the impacts. As far as possible the type, extent and direction of changes caused by existing land-uses should be analysed and the areas affected by environmental impacts should be geographically demarcated.
In the human context, the most important function of the environment is to satisfy basic needs; but from the environmental point of view, the protection of psychological and physical well-being (health) and quality of life are also overriding considerations. Indirectly, these existential needs can also be met through preservation of the natural systems on which life depends. Environmental uses and cultural resources (e.g. traditional lifestyles or ways of using natural resources) must be considered among other things in terms of social acceptability as resources worth protecting. Staff with specific knowledge of the local ecology are needed to analyse effective interactions and create impact models.
Summary 2 lists a number of uses or project types which must be assessed in terms of their environmental relevance in relation to the specific regional patterns of use:
Summary 2 - Environmentally relevant uses
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· Housing construction
· Trade and industry locations
· Transport facilities (road, rail, water)
· Utility installations
· Refuse and wastewater disposal installations, tips
· Quarrying/mining
· Deep storage of resources (e.g. oil, gas)
· Power generation (installations)
· Agriculture
· Forestry
· Inland and coastal fisheries
· Recreation/tourism
· Water regulation and development
· Tapping of groundwater
· Outfalls into surface waters
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The intensity of use or the more easily identifiable intensity of loading can be estimated in quality terms on the basis of indicators (cf. e.g. GASSNER, WINKELBRANDT 1990), given that measurement data on the condition of the environmental media atmosphere, soil and water are only very rarely available.
The following are examples of indicators which can be used:
· Agriculture: prevailing operating methods, use of external energy (frequency of treatment, mechanisation, use of fertilisers and pesticides; irrigated cultivation; special cultivation; grazing frequency and density; forms of stock-rearing)
· Wastewater disposal: number and type of discharges (origin of discharge pipes domestic/industrial); existence / state of development of sewerage system and treatment works
· Trade/industry: types of establishments, standard of environmental engineering; nature and extent of gaseous/liquid/solid emissions
· Traffic: volumes of traffic, state of development; proportion of heavy goods vehicle traffic.
The evaluation framework must be adapted to regional and/or local conditions; e.g. in sensitive ecosystems, certain forms of land-use must be classified as ('relatively') intensive, whilst in other areas, the same form of land-use may be regarded as relatively extensive.
(Geo)-structural and/or socio-economic changes are brought about along with settlement structure planning (expansion), trade and industry planning (search for locations) and traffic and transport planning (development), which then have secondary effects on the natural and socio-economic environment. Individual projects may also trigger chain reactions, some of which may have serious national repercussions.
Typical secondary effects, e.g. of infrastructural development, are:
- settlement of colonies and clearing of territory (e.g. Amazonia)
- uncontrolled establishment of trade/industry with subsequent movement of settlements and/or expansion as a result of migration
- intensification of land-use with possible consequent degradation
- increase in liquid, solid and gaseous pollutant emissions (e.g. occurrence of or increase in refuse and/or wastewater due to expansion of settlements) and
- changes in general socio-economic conditions through changes in structures for the supply and marketing of goods or through demand-led increase in land prices or cost of housing (socio-economic displacement processes).
The latter aspect should be investigated primarily within the framework of social compatibility surveys (vulnerability of ethnic minorities, women and children, traditional lifestyles and family structures).
The main problem with secondary effects is that they are difficult to estimate and the planning guidelines therefore require a great deal of effort. It may be possible to counter these with supporting measures at national level.
At area and regional planning level, it is vital above all to analyse any cumulative and/or synergetic effects. For example, reciprocal effects such as deforestation and simultaneous cultivation of land susceptible to erosion may result in irreversible degradation processes (cumulative effects). Consideration of projects in isolation will fail to satisfy the requirement for analysis of the adverse overall impact on an area, e.g. by combining all the planned projects which impinge on that region.
Ascertainment of all the loading factors must be offset against the productiveness or sensitivity of the natural resources. Initial loading must be taken into account in this process.
Risk assessment is based on an evaluation framework involving a comparison of assessed environmental impacts (intensity of use or disturbance) and assessed characteristic features or sensitivities of the natural resources.
Furthermore, demographic, economic, social and development policy factors as well as legal and institutional factors have a part to play at regional level in the development of the environmental situation in particular, yet extending beyond the scope of area planning. Changes in these factors in the interest of environmental protection should be viewed in the context of the creation/ improvement of suitable general conditions for environment-oriented area planning.