Sustainable Management of Bannerghatta National Park (BNP): Need and Challenges

Karnataka is naturally endowed with a diversity of bioclimatic, topographic and edaphic variations resulting in rich floristic and wildlife abundance (Pascal, 1982). Bangalore district which falls under the rain shadow area and a maidan with heterogenic mosaic of moist to dry deciduous forest and grasslands supports some last areas of wild life such as in Bannerghatta National park (BNP) area. BNP covers an area of 104.3 sq. km2 harbouring rich wild life population including Elephants. The park is contiguous with Talli reserve forest in the southeast and Bilikal forest in the south. The park connects the BR Hills and the Sathyamangalam forest and is part of a wildlife corridor for elephants.

Bangalore branded once as ‘Silicon Valley of India’ has been experiencing rapid urbanisation with growth of Information Technology (IT) industries (Sudhira, et al., 2007). Unplanned urbanisation ignoring the sustianble management of natural resources has threatened the ecological integrity of Bannerghatta National Park (BNP). The park has been facing an acute environmental stress due to encroachments of animal movement paths, large scale mining (sand, granite) and also the pressure of burgeoning Bangalore city. Also, the villages in the core and buffer regions surrounding the BNP have been posing threats to BNP with various environmentally destructive activities. Bannerghatta forests is the repository of terrestrial biodiversity with the immense medicinal values and has been aiding in regulating micro climate, recharging of ground water, recreation and spiritual potential, etc. This necessitates sustainable management of national parks so that dependent communities are benefitted from ecosystem goods and services (Arnberger et al., 2013). In this regard, the current study highlights the floristic status, composition and conservation aspects of BNP with buffer region with special reference to its wild life.

2.1 Study area and Method
BNP vegetation types: Bannerghatta National Park is located in the southern elevated plateau that extends from the foot of the Western Ghats. The plateau receives less than 1000 mm annual precipitation with natural climax vegetation of dry deciduous types and are broadly divided into:

Historical vegetation of the district is in undisturbed parts such as the core areas of Chikkaragalli betta are with dense jungle of Shorea talura-Terminalia sp-Anogiessus latifolia series forest. Shorea talura tree being a member of Dipterocarpaceae (all other family members of Dipterocarpaceae occur in evergreen to semi-evergreen forest) is an endangered tree as per IUCN category. The distribution of this forest type in less disturbed areas highlights the ecological importance of the area. These forest types have disappeared in most other areas with high anthropogenic pressure and vegetation mainly consists of Chloroxylon swietenia-Anogiessus latifolia-Albizzia series. Even these are replaced by hardy Acacia chundra dominated thorn forest or scrub in areas undergoing severe degradation with rampant charcoal making, grazing and rampant fuel wood collection. Highly degraded landscapes are dominated by barren lands with sparse shrubs such as Ziziphus sp., spiny climbers Pterolobium hexapetalum, and hardy grass species (Figure 1, 2.1 and figure 2.2).
Dendrocalamus strictus (bamboo) is associated with most of the vegetation except in most degraded areas. Bamboo along with many other trees, coupled with large grass lands have been the life-line for the survival of elephants and other herbivore wild-life. Another important feature of BNP is the presence of large number of wild legumes. As the forest canopy is not dense one can find large number of grass species along with many herbaceous species. Depending upon the different habitat such as forest underneath, open grassland, granitic hilly areas, wetlands, etc., different grass and other herbaceous plant species are distributed. For instance open grasslands are dominated by Heteropogon contortus along with Apluda mutica. Likewise hilly granitic areas have large grasses such as Themeda sp., and Cymbopogon sp.
Vegetation exploration: BNP was surveyed in localities listed in Table 1 (marked in Figure 3), for floristic composition in core area (inside the park) and surrounding buffer areas (outside the park). In buffer areas surrounding the BNP, twelve 10 x 10 m quadrats were laid for accessing tree diversity, dominance and per hectare basal area. In each quadrat all trees > 30 cm were enumerated with their GBH (Girth at breast height) and height (m). In the same quadrat one 5 x 5 m shrub plot were laid and tree saplings and shrubs above 1 m were recorded. Two herb plots of 1 x 1 m were laid in each opposite ends to enumerate the seedlings. Opportunistic plant recording was also carried out in both core and buffer areas. Along with vegetation data other details regarding plant-animal interaction, human-wildlife conflicts, etc., were noted.

Table 1: Forest quadrat study localities in BNP buffer area

2.2 Results and Discussion

Floristic composition in BNP core area: A total of 218 plants belonging to 60 families were recorded during the survey. Among these, trees (81 sp) and herbs (88 sp) had the highest number of species, followed by shrubs (34 sp) and climber (15 sp) (Figure 4). Despite the efforts on Bangalore flora by the earlier researchers (Ramaswamy & Razi, 1973), many species such as Lannea coromandelica, Schefflera sp., Ceropegia candelabrum, Flacourtia montana, etc. have gone unrecorded. This shows that there is scope for inventorying and mapping of flora in BNP. Details of plants occurring in BNP core area and buffer area (also locality wise) are provided in Annexure 1, 2 and 3.

Species richness of Family Fabaceae (33 sp.) was highest followed by Poaceae (28 sp.) (Figure 5). This indicates the high diversity of legumes in trees, shrubs and climbers. Many wild legumes from southern plateaus are considered to be ancestors of cultivated legumes. The crops that recur and dominate Southern Deccan Neolithic archaeo-botanical samples have wild ancestors to be found in the hills of scrub woodlands of the southern Deccan region (Fuller, 2011). Family Rubiaceae (15) and Malvaceae (12) also have high species richness and along with Fabaceae and Poaceae contribute some of the major sources of food for wild life. Floristic enrichment with these native fodder plants will greatly help the BNP region which forms a crucial link for elephant movement path with inter-state corridor for wildlife.
Vegetation dynamics and dominant trees in the core area: Plant species distribution especially trees is highly dependent on conservation status including topography and other geological parameters. Most of the well conserved areas with good soil soil cover are with excellent deciduous forest cover of Shorea talura-Terminalia sp-Anogiessus latifolia series. The northern BNP areas surrounding Doddaragalli betta and Muttaraya temple area harbour these kind of forest and provide excellent fodder and canopy for wild animals. However, presence of only few large trees highlight that even these regions were subjected to disturbance atleast in earlier times. Due to rampant disturbances such as i) charcoal preparation, ii) cattle grazing, iii) illegal wood extraction and iv) other anthropogenic pressures in the rest of central and southern forest regions including Bilikal forest area, Shorea talura forest have disappeared giving way to Chloroxylon swietenia-Anogiessus latifolia-Albizzia sp., series which are hardier resisting fire and other disturbances. Large trees of Terminalia arjuna, Dalbergia lanceolaria, Ficus sp. Were seen in core areas and reverine forests. Even these regions were with stunted forests of Acacia sp and other thorny plants. Due to rampant exploitation, forests in the locailities surrounded by villages are generally Acacia thorn forest. Regeneration is poor in this region due to very high grazing pressure of large herds of cattle (Figure 6) and this has given way to thorn forest species.
Table 2: Some dominant trees of BNP core areas

Vegetation type in the buffer regions of BNP: Much of the buffer area vegetation is of Chloroxylon swietenia-Anogiessus latifolia-Albizzia sp series type in moderately disturbed areas to Acacia thorny scrub forest in highly degraded areas. Most of the forest vegetation in buffer has been more or less entirely wiped out for agricultural and other man made land uses, excspt in reserve forests, village lots (Karab lands), common grazing lands (Gomala) and other private areas. The region had continuous tropical deciduous forest and now this vegetation is restricted to BNP and protected areas. Forest in these village common lands is sparse and mostly of thorny scrub. Annexures 2 and 3 provide the details of plants in buffer area.
Floristic composition, diversity and basal area in buffer area: Total number of plant species in buffer region was 136 species fbelonging to 46 families. Most of the forest trees encountered were in village wood lots and gomalas with very few in agricultural landscapes. Trees encountered in agicultural landscapes were mostly non-forest trees - Azadirachta indica, Mangifera indica, Melia dubia, Artocarpus integrifolia etc. A total of 40 trees were encountered with 26 shrub species (Figure 7).

Family Fabaceae (25 sp.) had the highest number of species (Figure 8) followed by Poaceae (13 sp.) and Rubiaceae (11 sp.). Family Fabaceae has the highest number of species in buffer and this indicates that substantial amount of diversity found in core area is retained in these forest fragments of buffer regions. However much of these are under private ownerships and are on fast decline.

Basal area was higher than 30 sq.m2/ha in four localities with one being a Eucalyptus mixed scrub forest (Figure 11). Among the sampled localities, Devarahalli-Durgadakallu basal area was mostly contributed by Tamarind, and Albizzia amara, while in Shivanahalli-Toklabande and Kvanaldoddi-devrahalli had more forest species contributing to the basal area. Most other localities had very low basal areas indicating the high degradation of vegetation patches.

Table 12: Most abundant trees in buffer area.

Biodiversity in fragmented buffer areas: Human-dominated agricultural landscapes in the tropics contain a high biodiversity, though mostly consisting of a group of abundant, pantropical, cultivated, weedy or anthropic species. The presence of fragments of original forest will significantly enhance the diversity of the landscape and increase the likelihood of the survival of the indigenous biota, or at least a portion of it (Turner & Corlett, 1996). Most of the forest exists outside BNP in small isolated patches and in some what bigger area as state forests. Elephants and other wild animals were seen using these fragmented forests outside the BNP also. For instance, Gangadharabetta-Kanakaputa state forest with dry deciduous forest, Begihalli-Mantapa with Acacia-Bamboo forest, Shivanahalli-Toklabande dry deciduous forest, Elachavadi-Tandya with Acacia scrub jungle etc., are proven elephant habitats providing food, shelter and corridors (but fall outside BNP). Many smaller wood lots though may not support elephant population still harbour lot of smaller wild mammals and birds otherwise found in core areas. These regions are highly interspersed with agricultural and human habitat lands are forest patches are being illegally converted to other land uses. This is perhaps the single most destructive causes as large extent of forests, woodlands, wetlands, and savannas outside the reserve forest which are administered by the revenue department has been continuously converted in to farm lands through encroachments and land grants (Figure 13). These forest fragments with repositories of biodiversity among the agriculture dominated landscapes are to be conserved to ensure the exchange of ecological services from forest ecosystem to agrarian ecosystems. Hence these areas have to be mapped and inventories biodiversity for earmarking for conservation. Protection of these areas can be achieved by formation of village wise active VFC’s who can monitor the sustainable utilization and conservation of these fragments. Highly degraded fragments instead of being converted to other land uses can be brought back under suitable afforestation programmes. This will not only restores the ecosystem functions including support of wild fauna.
Medicinal plant resources in BNP area: Many cultures that have survived close to the nature, depending on its products for their needs. These people had a deep understanding of the properties of their local plants and this knowledge is in wane in recent population apart from the ecline of these endangered plant species (IUCN, 1993). This hold equally true to BNP areas as the present study showed nearly 63 % of the total plants with 138 plants were medicinally important from both the core and buffer areas. This shows the high medicinal plant diversity harboured by BNP area. Due to rapid urbanisation and landscape changes, habitat of large number of medicinal plants is on decline and also the local peoples who had excellent knowledge of medicinal plants are now on wane. The valuable knowledge they had on various human and cattle ailments and medicinal plants is not even recorded. Many species such as Cissampelos pariera, Decalepis hamiltonii, Cardiospermum helicabum, Gloriosa superba, Cassia fistula, Wrightia sp., Holarrhena pubescens, Aegle marmelos, Shorea roxburghii, Phyllanthus emblica etc., are highly valued medicinal plants with many of them are rare or endangered and traded in high volumes. This necessitates mapping, inventorying and conservation of medicinal plants in the BNP and buffer areas. List of medicinal plants is provided in Annexure 1.

Elephants and their conservation status in BNP-A need for more practical management plans.
Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) is categorized as an endangered species in IUCN list 2009, struggling for their survival due to habitat loss, forest fragmentation and disturbances in movement paths. Elephants are bulkfeeders and therefore have lower densities in areas with low plant biomass (Parker and Graham, 1989; Olff et al., 2002). In areas with high amounts of plant biomass, like rainforests, a relatively large part of the vegetation is inaccessible for elephants, which could result in lower elephant densities (Olff et al., 2002). Plant biomass is not the only important factor determining elephant distribution and density. Various studies have documented variation in elephant densities in different vegetation types, explained by differences in forage biomass, forage quality, shade, water availability, or plant species composition (Harris et al., 2008). Elephants have large home ranges and need extensive areas (Shannon et al., 2010). Habitat fragmentation leads to the reduction of the total habitat area, and the isolation and breaking up of habitat into smaller patches. Habitat fragmentation is therefore expected to negatively correlate with elephant distribution (Leimgruber et al., 2003). The conservation status of an area and protection efforts are positively correlated with wildlife population trends (Bruner et al., 2001; Caro and Scholte, 2007). However, protection not only depends on the existence of reserves but also on the policy of a country or region, the level of corruption, and the capacity of a country successfully to implement such a policy (Smith et al., 2003). Elephant densities strongly correlate with conservation policy, literacy rate, corruption and economic welfare, and associated vital parameters such as the availability of food and water. Hence, conservation strategies should be organized in a socioeconomic context. The successful conservation of large animal species depends more on human education, greater literacy and good governance, than merely setting aside areas for conservation (Willem et al, 2013).

Plate 1: BNP Forest types
A: Tropical deciduous forest with Shoreatalura-Terminalia sp-Anogiessuslatifolia series, B: Tropical dry deciduous forest with Chloroxylonswietenia-Anogiessuslatifolia-Albizziasp series, C: Acacia thorn forest, D: Bilikalgudda-dry deciduous forest

Plate 2: Plant diversity in BNP
A: Acacia chundra (Rottler) Willd, B: Acacia caesia (L.) Willd, C:Morindasp.. yellow bark,D: ArgyreiacuneataKer.-Gawl, E:Tribulusterrestris L.,F:Shorearoxburghii G. Don

Plate 3: Plant diversity in BNP
A:Ceropegia candelabrum L.,B: Cipadessabaccifera(Roth) Miq.,C:GrewiavillosaWilld., D:Diplocyclospalmatus (L.) C. Jeffrey,E:Givotiamoluccana (L.) Sreem, F:GmelinaarboreaRoxb.

Plate 4: Plants of BNP
A: Canthiumdicoccum (Gaertn.) T. & B., B: Ichnocarpusfrutescens (L.) W.T. Aiton,C:LepidagathiscristataWilld., D: Naringicrenulata (Roxb.) Nicolson,E: PremnatomentosaWilld.F:Rotalafimbriata Wt.

Plate 5: Plants of BNP
A:SemecarpusanacardiumL.f. B: Wrightiatinctoria (Roxb.) R. Br.C: Wrightiaarborea (Dennst.) Mabb.D:Andrographisserpyllifolia Wt.E: ByttneriaherbaceaRoxb.F:Dioscorea sp.

Plate 6: Forest disturbances in BNP
A:Large scale cattle grazing inside core area, B: Highly degraded gomala after the sand filtration, C: Gomala encroachment, D: Illegal sand filtering in gomala

Apluda mutica L.
Vernacular name: Grass
Family: Poaceae
Description: Annual or perennial herbs. Culms 40-140 cm high. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, base attenuate, apex setaceous. Spikelet’s 3- per raceme, 1 sessile, 2 pedicelled. Sessile spikelets 3 -7 mm long, awned. Pedicelled spikelet 3-6*1-1.5 mm oblong-lanceolate. Lower glume 3-6*1-1.5 mm, lanceolate, chartaceous. Florets more or less similar to those of sessile spikelet, upper lemma entire, unawned1,2,3,5.

Argyreia cuneata Ker.-Gawl.
Vernacular name: Kad Dasala
Family: Convolvulaceae
Description: Silky shrubs. Leaves obovate-lanceolate, emarginate or obtuse and apiculate, broadly cuneate at base, glabrous above. Corolla funnel-shaped, bright red. Berry leathery, yellow-brown1,2,3.
Flowering and fruit: August – January

Source-2

Aristida setacea Retz.
Vernacular name: Parke hullu
Family: Poaceae
Description: A coarse perennial. Leaves linear, convolute, sheaths long, flumes linear-lanceolate. Lemma awn smooth1,2,3.
Native: India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar
Flowering and fruit: May - December

Asparagus racemosus Willd.
Vernacular name: Sathavari
Family: Asparagaceae
Description: Woody perennial climbers. Cladodes from the axils of scale. Leaves in clusters of 2-6, linear-falcate, slightly triquetrous, base narrow, apex acute. Flowers bisexual, 5-6 mm across, bracts triangular. Berry 4- 6 mm diameter globose, purple on ripening. Seeds 2-5, globose1,2,3.
Flowering and fruit: July-August

Source-2

Atalantia racemosa Wt. & Arn.
Vernacular name: Kadu-kanchi
Family: Rutaceae
Description: Shrubs or small tree up to 4 m tall. Leaves simple, alternate, spiral, elliptic to elliptic –ovate, apex emarginated, base acute to rounded, margin entire, coriaceous, glandular punctate. Inflorescence axillary short cymes, flowers white, stamens connate. Berry globose. Seeds 41,2,5.
Native: Western India, Sri Lanka; Flowering and fruit: April - May

Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
Vernacular name: Bevu
Family: Meliaceae
Description: Evergreen trees up to 20 m, bark greyish-brown, vertically striated. Leaves imparipinnate, alternate, estipulate, rachis 14-30 cm long, glabrous. Flowers bisexual, white, in axillary panicles. 5 sepals, 5 petals. Fruit a drupe, oblong –ovoid, greenish-yellow, seed one, surrounded by a sweet pulp1,2,3.
Flowering: February-April, Fruiting: June-August

Bambusa sp
Family: Poaceae

Barleria buxifolia L.
Vernacular name: Gubbee mullu
Family: Acanthaceae
Description: A spinescent herb. Leaves simple, opposite, entire and ovoate with a sharp pointed. The petals are fused and the corolla is tubular and funnel-shaped. Fruit is an oblong capsule containing few compressed seeds1,2,5.
Native: Indian Archipelago; Flowering and fruit: July – February

Barleria prattensis sant.
Family: Acanthaceae
Description: Woody, erect herbs. Leaves ovate, acute-acuminate, cunceate, glabrous, usually drying black1,2,5.
Flowering and fruit: September - October

Bauhinia racemosa Lamk.
Family: Fabaceae
Vernacular name: Kanchuvala, Achiga
Description: A tree with leaf-lobes joined in the middle. Flowers are small (1 cm.), inconspicuous with narrow petals. Bark is grey and rugged with longitudinal fissures1,2,5.
Native: Tropics of both hemispheres
Flowering and fruit: March

Blepharis maderaspatensis (L.) Roth
Family: Acanthaceae
Description: A prostrate native herb. Leaves simple, 4-whorled in opposite pairs, roughly elliptic with margins showing fine saw-like teeth. Flowers in axillary clusters of 2 or 31,2,5.
Native: India, Sri Lanka, T. Africa
Flowering and fruit: November - February

Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr.
Common name: Indian Olibanum tree
Family: Burseraceae
Native: India
Description: A large sized deciduous tree. Leaves unipinnate and crowded at the branch end. Flowers are small, white and occur in fascicled racemes. Fruit is 3 lobed drupe2,3.
Flowering and fruit: February – May

Bridelia retusa (L.) A. Juss
Common name: Mullu jogala
Family: Euphorbiaceae
Description: Medium sized deciduous tree up to 18 m. leaves are simple, elliptic-oblong, brown pubescent on the lower surface. Flowers are borne in clusters on an elongated spike. Fruit is a 1 seeded pyrene1,2,5.
Native: South-east Asia; Flowering and fruit: March-September

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken
Vernacular name: Kadubasale
Family: Crassulaceae
Description: Branches terete. Leaves simple or pinnately 2-5-lobed, elliptic-oblong, crenate-serrate, obtuse, rounded or narrowed at base. Flowers yellow, pendulous1,2,5.
Native: Tropics
Flowering and fruit: December - February

Source-2

Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.
Common name: Flame of the Forest
Family: Fabaceae
Description: moderate sized deciduous tree up to 8 m high. Leaves alternate, 3-foliate, pulvinate, brown silky pubescent when young. Inflorescence a raceme. Fruit a pod, flat, thickened on the sutures, leathery, oblong. Seed solitary, compressed, obovate1,2,3.
Native: India; Flowering and fruit: February

Byttneria herbacea Roxb.
Family: Malvaceae
Description: Creeping, unarmed herbs. Leaves ovate, acute at apex, cordate or rounded at base, dentate, glabrescent. Sepals linear-lanceolate, recurved. Capsule 0.7 cm across1,2,4.
Native: India
Flowering and fruit: August - January

Source-2

Cajanus scarabaeoides (L.) Thouars
Vernacular name: Kaduthogari
Family: Fabaceae
Description: Pubescent shrubs. Leaflets elliptic to elliptic-oblong, acute to obtuse, grey-pubescent beneath. Raceme slender. Pod covered with golden spreading hairs, 4-6-seeded1,2,3.
Native: Indomalesia, China; Flowering and fruit: November-February

Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br.
Common name: Giant Milk- weed
Family: Apocynaceae
Description: Perennial shrub with milky latex. Leaves simple in opposite pairs. Flowers showy. Fruits is a pair of follicles with innumerable seeds having white long silky hairs at the end1,2.
Native : Tropical Asia, Tropical Africa; Flowering and fruit: Throughtout the year

Canthium coromandelicum (Burm.f.) Alston
Vernacular name: Kaaki
Family: Rubiaceae
Description: A shrub. Leaves ovate to elliptic, acute or acuminate at apex, stipules triangular with a long subulate point. Flowers small, greenish-yellow. Drupes obcordate1,2,3.
Flowering and fruit: March - April

Capparis zeylanica L.
Vernacular name: Thottalu balli
Family: Capparaceae
Description: A climbing shrub. Leaves are rough in texture, broadly lanceolate with short. Flowers are extra-axillary with 4 greenish-white petals. Fruits are ovoid berries, bright scarlet with many seeds1,2,3.
Native: India; Flowers: All Seasons

Cardiospermum halicacabum L.
Vernacular name: Bekkinabude gida
Family: Sapindaceae
Description: A small annual climbing herb. Leaves alternate, broad, segmented with toothed margin. Flowers are small in axillary umbels on a coiled wiry. Fruit is 3 angled and inflated1,2,3.
Native: India; Flowering and fruit: December - February

Careya arborea Roxb.
Common name: Kaval
Family: Lecythidaceae
Description: Deciduous trees up to 12 m high. Leaves simple, alternate, estipulate, clustered at the tips of branchlets. Flowers bisexual, greenish-white, in terminal spikes. Fruit a berry, 5-7.5 cm globose1,2,3.
Native: India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Afganisthan, Myanmar, Malaysia; Flowering and fruit: February-July

Cassia fistula L.
Common name: Indian laburnum
Family: Fabaceae
Description: Tree up to 5 m high. Leaves alternate, pinnate, leaflets up to 8 pairs, ovate-oblong, inflorescence a lax raceme, and drooping up to 50 cm long. Fruit a pod, pendulous, black, cylindrical1.2,3,4.
Native:India, China, Southeast Asia
Flowering and fruit: March – May; September

Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze
Vernacular name: Mookrike
Family: Celastraceae
Description: Medium to large size evergreen tree. Leaves are simple, ovate to ovate-elliptic with entire or crenate margin. Inflorescence is axillary dichotomously branched cyme. Flowers are white with a green disk and yellow anthers. Fruits is a drupe1,2,3.
Native: Indo-Malayan; Flowering and fruit: August - February

Source-2

Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirveng.
Vernacular name: Mangeri
Family: Rubiaceae
Description: Tree. Leaves elliptic-obovate, subacute. Flowers 1-few-fascicled, 5-merous. Corolla pale yellow. Berry ellipsoid, 4 cm across1,2,3.
Native: Paleotropics; Flowering and fruit: Year long

Celosia argentea L.
Vernacular name: Anne soppu
Description: A tall annual herb. Leaves are simple, alternate and elongated. Flowers tiny and crowded in terminal cone-shaped spikate inflorescence1,2,4.
Native: Tropical AsiaFlowering and fruit: September - October

Ceropegia candelabrum L.
Vernacular name: Bitharige
Family: Apocynaceae
Description: Rhizome tuberous. Leaves usually elliptic, glabrous, and slightly apiculate. Corolla swollen at base, follicles to 10 cm, narrowly attenuate1,2,3.
Native: India, Sri Lanka; Flowering and fruit: July - January

Chamaecrista mimosoides (L.) Greene
Common name: Feather-leaved Cassia,
Family : Fabaceae
Description: Delicate herb. Leaves 6-10 cm long, with gland at tip of petiole. Flowers solitary, small. Pod flat, pubescent, and dehiscent to 3.5 * 0.3 cm1,2,3.
Native: India, Old World Tropics; Flowering and fruit: September – February

Source-2

Chloris sp
Family: Poaceae

Chloroxylon swietenia DC.
Vernacular name: Huragalu mara, Masivala mara
Family: Rutaceae
Description: Moderate-sized deciduous tree. Leaves are pinnate with 10-20 pairs, often clustered towards the apex. Inflorescence is a panicle, flower are pedicelled with sepals and petals 5 each. Fruit is a loculicidal capsule1,2,3.
Native: India, Sri Lanka, South-east Asia; Flowering and fruit: February- July

Eupatorium odoratum L.
Family: Asteraceae
Description: An erect undershrub. Leaves opposite and palmately veined. Corolla white to purple. Florets bisexual. Pappus hairs are one seriate1,2,3.
Native: South America
Flowering and fruit: November - April

Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin.
Family: Poaceae
Description: Rhizome subterrancan, creping. Leaves mostly basal, rounded at tip, glabrous. Callus pungent, as long as spikelet1,2,3.
Native: Tropical Asia
Flowering and fruit: August - October

Sn	Quadrat study localities	Vegetation type
1	Ginidoddi-kathrinath	Gomala-Scrub
2	Hanumanthalla	Acacia thorn forest
3	Hallimaradoddi	Acacia thorn forest
4	Shivanahalli-toklabande	Dry deciduous forest-gomala
5	Doddibetta	Dry deciduous forest
6	Elachavadi-tandya	Acacia thorn forest
7	Devarahalli-durgadkallu	Dry deciduous-Grassland
8	Guttalahunase-kanakapura	Grassland-scrub
9	Gangadarabetta-kanakapura state forest	Dry deciduous forest
10	Harekodi Eucalyptus	Eucalptus-scrub forest
11	Begihalli-Mantapa	Dry deciduous forest
12	Kvanaldoddi-devarahalli	Dry deciduous forest


Figure 1: Shorea talura-Terminalia sp-Anogiessus latifolia series tropical deciduous forest		Figure 2.1: Chloroxylon swietenia-Anogiessus latifolia-Albizzia sp series tropical dry deciduous forest

*Figure 2.2: Acacia* thorn forest**

Figure 3: Vegetation sampling locations in BNP and buffer region

Species	Family
Acacia chundra (Rottler) Willd.	Fabaceae
Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd.	Fabaceae
Albizzia sp.	Fabaceae
Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Guill. & Perr.	Combretaceae
Bauhinia racemosa Lamk.	Fabaceae
Cassia fistula L.	Fabaceae
Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirveng.	Rubiaceae
Chloroxylon swietenia DC.	Rutaceae
Cipadessa baccifera (Roth) Miq.	Meliaceae
Dalbergia lanceolaria L.f.	Fabaceae
Dendrocalamus strictus Nees	Poaceae
Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb.	Ebenaceae
Ficus benghalensis L.	Moraceae
Ficus amplissima Sm.	Moraceae
Givotia moluccana (L.) Sreem	Euphorbiaceae
Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb.	Lythraceae
Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolson	Rutaceae
Premna tomentosa Willd.	Lamiaceae
Psydrax umbellata (Wight) Bridson	Rubiaceae
Semecarpus anacardium L.f.	Anacardiaceae
Shorea roxburghii G. Don	Dipterocarpaceae
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels	Myrtaceae
Tamarindus indica L.	Fabaceae
Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn.	Combretaceae
Terminalia paniculata Roth	Combretaceae
Vitex altissima L.f.	Lamiaceae
Wrightia arborea (Dennst.) Mabb.	Apocynaceae
Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb.) R. Br.	Apocynaceae

	Most abundant tree species in buffer area
Sl. No.	Scientific name	Family
1	Acacia chundra (Rottler) Willd.	Fabaceae
2	Albizia amara Boiv.	Fabaceae
3	Albizia odoratissima (L.f.) Benth.	Fabaceae
4	Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Guill. & Perr.	Combretaceae
5	Azadirachta indica A. Juss.	Meliaceae
6	Cassia fistula L.	Fabaceae
7	Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze	Celastraceae
8	Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb.	Ebenaceae
9	Eucalyptus sp	Myrtaceae
10	Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb.	Lythraceae
11	Melia dubia Cav.	Meliaceae
12	Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolson	Rutaceae
13	Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre	Fabaceae
14	Premna tomentosa Willd.	Lamiaceae
15	Semecarpus anacardium L.f.	Anacardiaceae
16	Tamarindus indica L.	Fabaceae
17	Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn.	Combretaceae
18	Terminalia elliptica Willd.	Combretaceae
19	Vitex altissima L.f.	Lamiaceae
20	Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb.) R. Br.	Apocynaceae

					Acacia caesia (L.) Willd. Vernacular name: Kaduseege Family: Fabaceae Description: A prickly climbing shrub up to 10 m. Leaves 20-25 cm long, pinnae 5-8 pairs, oblong, truncate at base, apiculate at apex. Heads terminal, panicled. Pods to 13*2.2 cm, oblong, flat, acuminate at both ends, marginate2. Flowering and fruit: October-December
Acacia chundra (Rottler) Willd. Vernacular name: Kempu jail Family: Fabaceae Description: Moderate-sized tree. Leaves alternate and pinnately compound with glands present on the rachis. Flowers are small, pale yellow in terminal spikes. Spike 6-8 cm long, pod stalked, flat, glabrous, subacute, 3-4 seeded1,2. Native: India; Flowering and fruit: May- October
Source-2						Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. Vernacular name: Kasturi jail Family: Fabaceae Description: Small tree. Leaves 5 cm long, petiole gland near the middle. Heads 1.3 cm across, orange. Pod subcylindrical, dehiscent, 6 cm long, 1 cm thick. 4-6 seeded1,2,3. Native: America; Flowering and fruit: November - February
Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. Vernacular name: Thapala Family: Fabaceae Description: Trees upto 20 m high, bark yellow to yellowish-brown, rough. Leaves bipinnate, alternate, and stipulate, apex subacute, margin ciliate, glabrous. Flowers yellow or yellowish-white. Fruit pod 6-15*0.8-1cm flat, strap-shaped. Seeds 5-12, ovate, 5-683-4 mm1,2. Flowering and fruit: February-March
Source-2				Acacia sinuata (Lour.) Merr. Vernacular name: Seege kai Family: Fabaceae Description: Climbing shrubs. Branches light brown-pubescent. Leaves 9 cm long, petiole gland below the middle. Heads 1 cm across, calyx red, finely 5-lobed, glabrous. Pod 15*2.5 cm, fleshy, wrinkled when dry. 10-14 seeds1,2,3. Native: Tropical Asia; Flowering and fruit: March – July
Achyranthes aspera L. Vernacular name: Uttarani Family: Amaranthaceae Description: An erect herb. Leaves are thick, elliptic or obovate, entire and obtuse. Flowers are greenish-white, small, numerous, stiffly deflexed against the rachis. Fruit is a utricle1,2,3. Native: Southeastern Asia; Flowering and fruit: September - April
			Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. Vernacular name: Bili hindi gida Family: Amaranthaceae Description: An erect or prostrate herb. Leaves alternate, elliptic to obovate or acute, entire with cottony hair beneath. Flowers are tiny, white and are crowded in compact axillary spikes1,2,5. Native: Afrotropics; Flowering and fruit: October - April
Aeschynomene sp Family: Fabaceae
			Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wang. Vernacular name: Ankule mara Family: Cornaceae Description: A small deciduous tree or shrub. Leaves narrowly elliptic or ovate or obtuse. Flowers greenish-white, pubescent outside. Fruit ellipsoid, crowned with vestiges of calyx1,2,6. Native: Tropical Asia; Flowering and fruit: February – May & April – July
Albizia amara Boiv. Vernacular name: Ghujjalu Family: Fabaceae Description: A large deciduous tree upto 13 m high, bark thin, surface grey, rough. Leaves bipinnate, alternate, stipulate, stipules minute, with a gland near the base on the upper side, yellow tomentose. Flowers bisexual, white, heads solitary, densely pubescent, glabrous except the bearded apex. Fruit a pod 10-24* 2.5-4 cm, flat, greyish-brown, veiny, straight or wavy along margin. Seeds 6-13, compressed, ovate-orbicular1,2,3. Flowering and fruit: June-January
	Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. Vernacular name: Bage Family: Fabaceae Description: Deciduous trees up to 25 m high. Leaves bipinnate, alternate, stipules, stipules small, free, lateral, cauduous, slender, grooved above, with a gland at its base. Glabrous, pulvinate. Flowers bisexual, greenish-white, in subglobose heads, solitary or 2-4 together in axillary corymbose racemes. Fruit a pod, flat, oblong, compressed, straw coloured, base and apex obtuse, dull dark brown, flattened1,2,3. Flowering and fruit: March-December
Albizia odoratissima (L.f.) Benth. Vernacular name: Bilwara Family: Fabaceae Description: Deciduous tree upto 30 m high, bark 10-15 mm thick, initially tawny pubescent, finally glabrous. Leaves bipinnate, alternate, stipulate, stipule free, lateral, caducous. Flowers bisexual, white, in globose heads forming terminal panicles. Fruit a pod flat, strap-shaped, with parallel margin or often some portion constricted, rounded to rostrate at apex. Seeds 6-12, oblong, orbicular, compressed1,2,4. Flowering and fruit: April-January							Source-2
		Albizia sp Family: Fabaceae
Allmania nodiflora (L.) R. Br. ex Wight Family: Amaranthaceae Description: Diffused herb. Leaves 62 cm, broadly elliptic, base narrowed and petiole-like, drying olive green. Flowers in terminal and axillary globose, congested cyme. Achenes 32mm, ellipsoid with a long beak, black1,2,3. Flowering and fruit: July-October
		Alternanthera pungens H. B. & K. Vernacular name: Mullu honagonne Family: Amaranthaceae Description: A spreading herb. Leaves opposite, simple, stalked, entire, spathulate. Flowers are small, inconspicuous, head-like inflorescence1,2,3. Native: Neotrpoics Flowering and fruit: Throughout the year
Andrographis serpyllifolia Wt. Vernacular name: Kaasinasarada gida Family: Acanthaceae Description: A prostrate herb. Leaves are orbicular and glabrous. Flowers are subsessile, mostly solitary with small bracts. Fruit is a capsule1,2,3. Native: India Flowering and fruit: June - September
		Annona squamosa L. Vernacular name: Seethaphala Family: Annonaceae Description: Shrub or small trees, somewhat bushy. Leaves simple, alternate, ovate, oblong-lanceolate to oblong –elliptic, margin entire, apex obtuse to acute, coriaceous, membranous. Flowers bisexual, subcapitate, pedicels slender, minutely pubescent about 1-3 cm long. Carpels many, subglobose or ovoid, subconnate, minutely pubescent. Ripe carpels, broadly globose pr ovoid in fruit, fragrant. Seeds many, black with dark brown patches, slightly flattened, arillate1,2,3. Flowering: April-July ; Fruiting: July-August
Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Guill. & Perr. Vernacular name: Dindiga, Dindlu Family: Combretaceae Description: Deciduous trees up to 18 m high, bark 10-12 mm thick, surface grey or yellowish-grey, smooth, lenticellate, drooping. Leaves simple, opposite to alternate, estipulate, suborbicular or oblong –obovate, base obtuse. Flowers bisexual, pale green or yellow, in axillary aggregated globose heads. Fruit a drupe, greenish-yellow, compressed, puberulous, circular, wings 2, margin entire or slightly undulate beaked. Seeds one, obovate1,2,5. Flowering: June-September; Fruiting: December-March								Source-2


*Figure 13: Large area of gomalas with Acacia* forest and elephant corridors now under private owner ship in BNP buffer area.**	Figure 14: Elephants breaking the BNP boundary electric fence to move out into buffer areas.

Sl.No.	Species name	Family	Habit	Preference	Parts eaten
1	Acacia chundra (Rottler) Willd.	Fabaceae	Tree	High	Leaf, Twig, Bark
2	Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd.	Fabaceae	Tree	High	Leaf
3	Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth.	Fabaceae	Tree	Medium	Leaf, Twig
4	Asparagus racemosus Willd.	Asparagaceae	Climber	High	Leaf, Root
5	Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss	Poaceae	Bamboo	High	Leaf, Twig, Bark
6	Bauhinia racemosa Lamk.	Fabaceae	Tree	High	Leaf
7	Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.	Fabaceae	Tree	High	Leaf, Tree
8	Careya arborea Roxb.	Lecythidaceae	Tree	High	Leaf, Fruit, Bark
9	Cassia fistula L.	Fabaceae	Tree	Low	Leaf, Twig
10	Crytococcum sp	Poaceae	Herb	High	Leaf
11	Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) W. Watson	Poaceae	Herb	Low	Leaf
12	Dendrocalamus strictus Nees	Poaceae	Bamboo	High	Leaf, Twig
13	Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb.	Ebenaceae	Tree	High	Leaf, Fruit, Root
14	Ficus benghalensis L.	Moraceae	Tree	High	Leaf, Bark
15	Flacourtia indica (Burm. F.) Merr.	Salicaceae	Tree	Medium	Twig, Bark
16	Gmelina arborea Roxb.	Lamiaceae	Tree	Medium	Bark
17	Grewia tiliifolia Vahl	Malvaceae	Tree	High	Leaf, Twig
18	Helicteres isora L.	Malvaceae	Shrub	High	Leaf, Young twig
19	Heteropogon contortus (L.) P. Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult.	Poaceae	Herb	High	Leaf
20	Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don	Apocynaceae	Tree	Low	Twig
21	Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) W.T. Aiton	Apocynaceae	Climber	Low	Entire plant
22	Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb.	Lythraceae	Tree	High	Leaf, Bark, Twig
23	Madhuca indica J.F. Gmel.	Sapotaceae	Tree	High	Leaf, Flower, Fruit
24	Mangifera indica L.	Anacardiaceae	Tree	Medium	Fruit
25	Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth.	Rubiaceae	Tree	Low	Bark
26	Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolson	Rutaceae	Tree	Medium	Leaf, Twig
27	Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.	Fabaceae	Tree	Medium	Leaf
28	Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Merr.	Sapindaceae	Tree	Medium	Leaf, Twig
29	Semecarpus anacardium L.f.	Anacardiaceae	Tree	Medium	Bark
30	Smilax zeylanica L.	Smilacaceae	Climber	Low	Leaf
31	Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels	Myrtaceae	Tree	Medium	Leaf, Twig, Bark
32	Tamarindus indica L.	Fabaceae	Tree	High	Leaf, Fruit
33	Tectona grandis L.f.	Lamiaceae	Tree	Low	Bark
34	Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.	Combretaceae	Tree	Medium	Leaf
35	Terminalia chebula Retz.	Combretaceae	Tree	Medium	Leaf
36	Terminalia elliptica Willd.	Combretaceae	Tree	High	Leaf, Bark
37	Themeda triandra Forssk.	Poaceae	Herb	High	Leaf
38	Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill.	Rhamnaceae	Shrub	Medium	Leaf

Cipadessa baccifera (Roth) Miq. Vernacular name: Sidigolli Family: Meliaceae Description: Shrub. Leaf rachis to 27 cm long, leaflets 9-13, elliptic to elliptic-lanceolate, acuminate. Sepals sparsely pubescent. Seeds not winged, exarillate1,2,3. Flowering and fruit: Year long
Source-2		Cissampelos pareira Vernacular name: Padvali Family: Menispermaceae Description: Climbing herbs. Leaves broadly ovate to suborbicular, rounded to acute at apex with apiculate tip. Flowers greenish-white. Drupe scarlet, pubescent1,2,3. Native: Tropics; Flowering and fruit: July - October
Clausena anisata (Willd.) Hook.f. ex Benth. Family: Rutaceae Description: Small tree. Leaves compound, usually imparipinnate, cluster at twig ends. Leaflets generally increase in size towards apex. Inflorescence axillary racemes, white flower. Berry globose1,2,3. Flowering and fruit: March-June
		Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels Vernacular name: Dhagadiballi Family: Menispermaceae Description: Climbing shrub. Leaf blade 15-6*0.5-2.5 cm, ovate, obtuse or mucronate at apex, rounded or truncate at base, clustered pistillate flowers. Drupe reddish-black1,2,4. Native: Tropical Africa and India; Flowering and fruit: August – March
Commelina canescens Family: Theaceae Description: Shrub. Leaves elliptic-oblong, apex acuminate, base acute, serrate. Flowers axillary, solitary to 3 cm across, white. Capsule to 2mm across, woody, subglobose1,2,3,4. Flowering and fruit: June-January
		Corchorus sp Family: Malvaceae
Crotalaria sp Family: Fabaceae
		Crotalaria vestita Baker Family: Fabaceae Description: Erect herb. Leaves oblong, obtuse. Raceme few-flowered. Calyx villous. Corolla equaling or included in calyx. Pod exserted, glabrous, many-seeded1,2,3,5. Native: Tropics Flowering and fruit: November - February
Crytococcum sp Family: Poaceae
		Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Vernacular name: Nela taale Family: Hypoxidaceae Description: Perennial herb. Leaves strap-like with parallel veins. Flowers solitary, attractive and borne on a long stalk that arises from base. Fruit is a three-lobed capsule1,2,3,4. Native: India; Flowering and fruit: June - August
Cyanotis sp Family: Commelinaceae
Source-7		Cymbopogon coloratus (Nees) Stapf Vernacular name: Nimber hullu Family: Poaceae Description: Perennial grass. Culms upto 2 m tall. Leaf sheaths 5-15 cm, basal tomentose, upper globrous. Panicle dense, upto 8 cm. Sessile spikelet, lower glume, coriaceous, oblong. Lemmas hyaline, epaleated1,2,3,4. Flowering and fruit: August -October
Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) W. Watson Family: Poaceae Description: Blade lanceolate, glaucous. Sheath hairy. Inflorescence congested with raceme pairs in masses1,2,3,4. Native: Indomalaysia Flowering and fruit: September				Source-2
		Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle Family: Poaceae Description: A tall perennial. Blade lanceolate, acuminate, glaucous. Lower glume not grooved not slotted. Panicle often turning purplish under dry conditions1,2,3,4. Native: South India, Sri Lanka
Cymbopogon sp Family: Poaceae
		Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd. Vernacular name: Konana tale hullu Family: Poaceae Description: An annual grass. Culms erect or prostrate. Leaves linear-acuminate, glaucous, ligule short and membranous. Spikes digitately radiating1,2,3,5.
Dalbergia lanceolaria L.f. Vernacular name: Bili beete Family: Fabaceae Description: A deciduous tree up to 25 m high with pubescence on younger partions. Leaves are once pinnate, leaflets 13-15, obovate, membranous. Corolla white. Pod is narrow at both ends, 1.5 cm wide1,2,3,4. Native: India; Flowering and fruit: August - September				Source-2
		Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. Vernacular name: Beete mara Family: Fabaceae Description: A large erect deciduous tree. Leaves are compound with 7-9 leaflets with broad at the free end. Flowers are small, white and appear on an axillary panicle. The fruit is 1-4 seeded rather flattened pod1,2,3,4. Native: India; Flowering and fruit: May - September
Dendrocalamus strictus Nees Family: Poaceae Description: Clum sheath, triangular, with brown shining hairs on the back. Blade narrow, small, deciduous, sheath glabrous with narrow ligule1,2,3,4. Native: India, Burma				Source-2
		Desmodium sp Family: Fabaceae
Dicliptera paniculata (Forssk.) I. Darbysh. Apud I. Darbysh. & Vollesen Vernacular name: Cheebi gida Family: Acanthaceae Description: Subshrub. Leaves ovate and acuminate, hairy. Flowers in cymes. Calyx lobes linear, hairy. Corolla is pink, hairy outside. Fruit is a capsule1,2,3,4. Native: India, Myanmar, Vietnam, Tropical Africa Flowering and fruit: October - January				Source-2
		Digitaria sp Family: Poaceae
Dioscorea oppositifolia L. Family: Dioscoreaceae Description: Stem twining. Leaves opposite and alternate, very variable in shape. Male spike brownish pubescent. Capsule stipitate, pendulous, broader than long1,2,3,4. Native: India, Sri Lanka Flowering and fruit: August -January
		Dioscorea pentaphylla L. Family: Dioscoreaceae Description: Climber. Leaves 3-5-foliate, leaflets digitate, ovate-elliptic, oblique at base. Male spikes in axillary or terminal panicles. Capsule longer than broad. Seeds winged only at base1,2,3,5. Flowering and fruit: August – November
Diospyros chloroxylon Roxb. Vernacular name: Nensi Family: Ebenaceae Description: Shrubs or tree. Leaf blade elliptic-oblong or obovate, usually obtuse, grey-pubescent when young. Inflorescence of short axillary cymes in male. Flowers 4-merous, sessile or subsessile. Berry globose, 1 cm across. Seeds 2-3, smooth1,2,3,4. Native: India; Fruits: October - November				Source-2
		Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. Vernacular name: Tumari Family: Ebenaceae Description: Deciduous tree with branchlets fulvous-tomentose. Leaves simple, elliptic or oblong. Male flowers in short cymes, females solitary. Corolla white1,2,3,4. Native: India; Flowering and fruit: Late March
Diospyros montana Roxb. Vernacular name: Balagunike Family: Ebenaceae Description: tree. Leaf blade elliptic-oblong or obovate, obtusely acute or acuminate at apex, rounded or subcordate at base. Male flowers in cymes, pubescent, female solitary flowers 4-merous. Corolla greenish-white, glabrescent, urceolate. Berry globose, glabrous1,2,3,4. Native: India; Flowering and fruit: March - April
		Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) C. Jeffrey Vernacular name: Shivalingi Family: Cucurbitaceae Description: A climbing herb. Leaves are simple, alternate with semilunar-margined lobes. Flowers arise in axillary fascicles, unisexual with a shallow bell-shaped hairy corolla. Fruit is fleshy1,2,3. Native: India, South-east Asia, Tropical Africa Flowering and fruit: August - September
Drosera burmannii Vahl Family: Droseraceae Description: Acaulescent herbs. Stipulate leaves. Scape terminal, circinate. Flowers white, 5 petals, obovate1,2,3. Native: West Africa to North E Australia
Source-8		Echinochloa colonum (L.) Link. Family: Poaceae Description: Annuals. Leaves linear-lanceolate, rounded or shallowly cordate at base, apex acuminate. Lower glume 1-2*1-1.5 mm, ovate, acuminate, chartaceous1,2,3. Flowering and fruiting: Throughout the year
Eleusine aegyptiaca (L.) Desf. Family: Poaceae Description: culms 30-60 cm long, creeping or geniculately ascending. Leaves linear, rounded or shallowly cordate at base, acuminate, margins at base ciliate. Spikes 2-6 digitate, spikelets sessile1,2,3,5. Native of South America, naturalised in Paleotropics Flowering and fruiting: Throughout the year				Source -9
Source -10		Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Vernacular name: Madhulika Family: Poaceae Description: Annual herb. Culms tufted, erect, slender, compressed, glabrous. Inflorescence a terminal branched flowered. Lemma lanceolate, acute. Palae slightly shorter than the lemma, keeled, narrowly, winged. Grain oblong, globose1,2,3. Flowering and fruit: July - September
Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. Family: Asteraceae Description: Annual herb. Leaves simple, auriculate at base, obovate with toothed margin. Flower heads small. Cypsela are slender, ribbed, brown with white coma1,2,3,5. Native: Old World Tropics Flowering and fruit: September - December			Source-2
Source-2		Eragrostiella bifaria (Vahl) Bor Family: Poaceae Description: Perennial culms tufted. Spikelets straw coloured, laterally compressed, linear to ovate-oblong. Caryopsis globose1,2,4,5. Native: South America Flowering and fruit: July – June
Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. Family: Poaceae Description: Tufted annuals with spreading panicle. Spikelets white to pink or reddish-purple, ovate, acute, sometimes oblong1,2,4,5. Native: Indomalaysia Flowering and fruit: July-October			Source-2
Source-2		Erythrina suberosa Roxb. Family: Fabaceae Description: A moderate size deciduous tree with small prickles on the bark. Leaves are three leaflets and crowded at branch ends. Flowers are bright red in fascicles. Pod is long, tapering at both ends1,2,3,5. Native: India Flowering and fruit: February - May
Erythroxylum monogynumRoxb. Family: Erythroxylaceae Description: Small tree. Leaves alternate, sometimes fascicled, obovate and glaucous beneath. Flowers are solitary or in fascicles. Fruit is a drupe with single seed and bright red when ripe1,2,3,4. Native: India Flowering and fruit: Throughout the year
		Eucalyptus sp Family: Myrtaceae
Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. Vernacular name: Vishnu kranthi Family: Convolvulaceae Description: A small herb. Leaves ovate-elliptic, alternate and silky hairy. Flowers are small and solitary. Fruit is capsule globose1,2,3,5. Native: Tropical Africa, Asia Flowering and fruit: July – November
Source-2		Ficus amplissima Sm. Vernacular name: Bilibasuri mara Family: Moraceae Description: A large spreading tree. Petiole 3 cm long, leaf blade ovate, slightly acuminate at the apex. Figs occur in axillary pairs, sessile, bracts small and scaly1,2,3,4. Native: India, Sri Lanka Flowering and fruit: Throughout the year
Ficus drupacea Thunb. Vernacular name: Bili golimara Family: Moraceae Description: Large tree with spreading crown. Leaves are shiny on the upper surface. Figs occur in pairs in the leaf axils1,2,3,4. Native: India Flowering and fruit: January - March			Source-2
Source-2		Ficus microcarpa L.f. Vernacular name: Kiru goli Family: Moraceae Description: Tree with few aerial roots. Leaf blade elliptic-obovate, obtuse or abruptly acuminate at apex. Figs in axillary pairs, sessile, glabrous to 1 cm across1,2,3,4. Native: India, Sri Lanka
Fimbristylis barbata (Rottb.) Bth. Family: Cyperaceae Habit: Herb. Leaves narrow, linear, acute, glabrous, sheath pilose. Inflorescence a terminal, subglobose, spiked head. Glumes laterally compressed, lanceolate or cymbiform, glabrous or minutely hispid. Fruit a nut, broadly obovoid, trigonous, smooth, straw-coloured1,2,3,5. Flowering and fruity: July - November			Source-11
Source-2	Flacourtia indica (Burm. F.) Merr. Vernacular name: Miradi Family: Salicaceae Description: Shrub. Leaves obovate with serrate or entire margin. Flowers small, dioecious, greenish-yellow. Fruit a globose berry1,2,3,4. Native: India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia Flowering and fruit: September - March

Flacourtia montana J. Graham Vernacular name: Kakkade hannu Family: Salicaceae Description: A large tree. Leaves elliptic, oblong, acuminate, rounded at base, crenate pubescent on midrib. Flowers unisexual. Berry fleshy1,2,3,4. Native: India; Flowering and fruit: April-June
Source-2	Flueggea leucopyrus Willd. Vernacular name: Bilishooli gida Family: Phyllanthaceae Description: A large shrub. Leaves simple, alternate and ovate. Flowers are unisexual, small, fragrant. Fruit is small, globose, smooth and white in colour1,2,3. Native: India, Sri Lanka Flowering and fruit: June - September
Garuga pinnata Roxb. Vernacular name: Goddana mara Family: Burseraceae Description: Deciduous tree. Leaves grow closely crowded at the ends of branches. Pinnately compound with terminal leaflet at tip. Flowers in panicles are 1-1.2 cm long, bell shaped. Fruits resemble small grapes. Fruits are edible1,2,3. Native: Asia; Flowering and fruit: November - March						Source-2
Source-2		Givotia moluccana (L.) Sreem Vernacular name: Butti mara Family: Euphorbiaceae Description: Moderate sized tree. Leaves are simple, broadly ovate or orbicular, coarsely dentate. Flowers are unisexual and dieocious. Fruit is a drupe1,2,3,4. Native: India; Flowering and fruit: March - May
Gloriosa superba L. Vernacular name: Kolikuttuma Family: Colchicaceae Description: Climbing to 4-6 m. Leaves oblong to ovate-lanceolate. Pedicels 6-8 cm, reflexed at the tip. Stigma introse. Capsule green, smooth oblong1,2,3,4. Native: Paleotropics; Flowering and fruit: August - October
			Gmelina arborea Roxb. Vernacular name: Gambhari, Kasmari Family: Lamiaceae Description: Large deciduous tree. Leaves are long-stalked, broadly heart-shaped and are arranged in opposite pairs. Flowers arise in branching clusters towards the end of twigs, trumpet-shaped. Fruit is ovoid, 2-3 cm. long and yellow when ripe1,2,3,4. Native: India; Flowering and fruit: April - May
Grewia nervosa (Lour.) Panigrahi Family: Malvaceae Description: Erect shrubs. Leaves elliptic-oblong or ovate-lanceolate, base rounded or cordate. Flowers in axillary and terminal panicles. Fruit drupe 6-10 mm across1,2,3,4. Flowering and fruit: August – April
			Grewia sp Family: Malvaceae
Grewia villosa Willd. Vernacular name: Battigargale Family: Malvaceae Description: shrubs. Leaf blade rounded, acute, subcordate at base. Peduncle extra-axillary, shorter than petiole. Drupe globose, crustaceous, pilose1,2,3,5. Native: India; Flowering and fruit: July - October
Source-2		Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsdale Vernacular name: Anavu Family: Rubiaceae Description: Deciduous tree. Leaves simple, orbicular to cordate, with an acuminate tip. Flowers are small and yellow and aggregated in heads. Fruit capsule1,2,3. Native; India, Sri Lanka, China; Flowering and fruit: March - June
Helicteres isora L. Vernacular name: Kempukaaveri Family: Malvaceae Description: Woody shrub. Leaves simple, elliptic-obovate, obliquely cordate at base. Flowers are cyme axillary. Sepals are brown, hairy and 2 lipped. Fruit is spirally twisted1,2,3. Native: India, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, China, Malaysia, Java, Australia Flowering and fruit: September - February
		Heteropogon contortus (L.) P. Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult. Vernacular name: Gandu bin Family: Poaceae Description: Annual or perennial grass with strongly-tufted stems. Leaf blades are lanceolate. Inflorescence is a solitary spike-like silky-hairy raceme with minute flowers1,2,3. Native: California; Flowering and fruit: July - November
Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don Vernacular name: Kudha Family: Apocynaceae Description: Small tree. Flowers white fragrant. Fruit in long paired follicles white dotted1,2,3,4. Native India-Malay Peninsula Flowering and fruit: March - June
		Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch. Vernacular name: Rahu beejada mara Family: Cannabaceae Description: Large deciduous tree. Leaves are simple, entire with lateral and membranous stipules. Flowers are small, unisexual and borne in fascicles. Fruit is winged1,2,3,5. Native: India and South-east Asia; Flowering and fruit: October - February
Hymenodictyon orixense (Roxb.) Mabb. Vernacular name: Dossa toppemara Family: Rubiaceae Description: Deciduous tree. Leaves broadly ovate, acuminate at apex, narrowed into the petiole at base, membranous. Flowers white, in dense cylindrical leafy bracteates. Fruit capsule ovoid, 2 cm long1,2,3,4. Native: Indian sub-continent; Flowering and fruit: May - November				Source-2
		Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) W.T. Aiton Vernacular name: Gauri balli Family: Apocynaceae Description: An evergreen woody twiner with milky sap. Leaves elliptic-oblong or lance shaped. Flowers are borne in many flowered clusters. Fruit is a follicle, solitary or paired1,2,3,4. Native: Tropical Asia; Flowering and fruit: August - December
Impatiens sp Family: Balsaminaceae
			Indigofera sp Family: Fabaceae
Indigofera tinctoria L. Vernacular name: Neela gida olle neele Family: Fabaceae Description: Shrub. Leaf rachis to 8 cm long, rarely subopposite, obtuse, apiculate. Raceme to 4 cm long. Pod linear, slightly curved, sparsely hairy1,2,3. Native: Tropics
Source-2		Iphigenia indica (L.) A. Gray ex Kunth Family: Colchicaceae Description: Herb. Leave dense, linear-lanceolate, acuminate, and sessile. Perianth segments linear, subulate, chocolate. Capsule oblong or sub globose1,2,3. Native: Indomalaysia Flowering and fruit: August – January
Ipomoea grandifolia (Dammer) O' Donell Family: Convolvulaceae Description: Climber. Leaves broadly ovate to orbicular in outline, entire or 3-lobed, glabrous. Flowers in pedunculate, subumbellate cyme. Capsules 5-6 mm long, subglobose, bristly hairy1,2,3. Native: Tropical America Flowering and fruit: September - November					Source-2

Source-2		*Ipomoea nil* (L.) Roth Vernacular name: Gouribeeja Family: Convolvulaceae Description: Climbing shrub. Leaf ovate, cordate, palmately 3 lobed. Cyme umbellate, few flowered. Corolla campanulate, blue or pink. Capsule 3 subglobose1,2,3. Native: Tropics; Flowering and fruit: September - December
Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker Gawl Vernacular name: Godlajadi Family: Convolvulaceae Description: Slender climber. Leaf entire-angled, ovate, acuminate, cordate, glabrous or pubescent. Corolla funnel-shaped, sparsely pubescent. Fruit capsule ellipsoid, apiculate1,2,3. Native: India, Sri Lanka; Flowering and fruit: August - April				Source-2
		Ischaemum sp Family: Poaceae
Ixora notoniana Wall. Family: Rubiaceae Description: Shola tree. Leaf stalk stout, entire, more or less elliptic, firm. Flowers are in hemispherical clusters massed into broadly rounded. Fruit black nearly round, of two cells1,2,3. Native: India					Source-12
		Jasminum sp Family: Oleaceae
Jatropha gossypifolia L. Family: Euphorbiaceae Description: Shrubs. Leaves spiral, deeply lobed, orbicular-cordate, margin with gland-tipped hairs. Flowers red with yellow centre, unisexual in axillary and terminal monoecious corymbose cyme. Fruit capsule, 3 lobed1,2,3. Native of South America; Flowering and fruit: July-September
		Justicia simplex Family: Acanthaceae Description: herb. Leaves linear, simple, opposite. Flowers about 0.5 cm, clustered in terminal hairy spikes. Fruit is few-seeded capsule1,2,3. Native: India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Pakistan Flowering and fruit: July- September
Kyllinga pumila Michx. Vernacular name: Mustaka Family: Cyperaceae Description: Small, tufted herb. Leaves long-pointed. Head rounded-pyramidal, greenish or yellowish-white with 3 spreading bracts. Glumes thin, unwinged1,2,3. Native: Paleotropics and into subtropics Flowering and fruit: August - October						Source-13
	Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb. Vernacular name: Chennangi mara Family: Lythraceae Description: Deciduous tree. Leaves subsessile, elliptic-oblong, glaucous beneath. Capsule ellipsoid, appressed by calyx tube1,2,3. Native: Western India, Myanmar Flowering and fruit : May-February
Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. Vernacular name: Ajjashringi Family: Anacardiaceae Description: Tree upto 25 m high. Leaves imparipinnate, alternate, clustered at the end of branchlets. Flowers unisexual, yellowish-green. Fruit a drupe, ovoid, red. Seed compresed1,2,3. Native: India, Sri Lanka						Source-2
Source-14	Lantana tiliaefolia Cham. Family: Verbenaceae Description: Prickly straggling shrub. Leaves opposite, simple, ovate or ovate-oblong, serrulate, acute. Inflorescence in terminal and axillary umbellate. Fruit a fleshy drupe, dark-pink, edible1,2,3. Flowering and fruit: February – August
Lepidagathis cristata Willd. Vernacular name: Nari goodi Family: Acanthaceae Description: Creeping herb. Leaves linear-oblong, glabrous. Spikes capitate, mostly crowded on lower nodes. Corolla white, hairy1,2,3. Native: India Flowering and fruit: Throughout the year
	Leucas aspera (Willd.) Spr. Vernacular name: Thumbe gida Family: Lamiaceae Description: Erect herb upto 40 cm tall. Leaves linear-lanceolate, base cuneate, margin distantly serrate. Verticils axillary and terminal, distantly arranged, rarely superposed, very dense, many-flowered, bracts-linear, ciliate. Nutlets 3 mm long, smooth, brown, truncate at apex1,2,3. Flowering and fruit: September-January
Leucas lavandulifolia Sm. Vernacular name: Thumbe Family: Lamiaceae Description: Herb. Leaves subserrate, linear-lanceolate, membranous. Verticillasters 1-2, many-flowered. Upper lip shorter than lower lip1,2,3. Native: Indo-malaya Flowering and fruit: Throughout the year						Source-2
	Leucas martinicensis (Sw.) R. Br. Family: Lamiaceae Description: Herb hairy. Leaves oblong, blade serrate. Flowers in either terimal or axillary verticillasters. Corolla white with both lips equal. Fruit is a nutlet1,2,3. Native: South America, Caribbean Flowering and fruit: All Season
Leucas sp Family: Lamiaceae
			Madhuca latifolia (Roxb.) J.F. Macbr. Vernacular name: Ippe, Helippe Family: Sapotaceae Description: Trees up to 20 m high, brak grey. Leaves simple, alternate, clustered at the end of branchlets, stipules lateral, lanceolate. Flowers bisexual, creamy, axillary. Fruit a berry, ovoid, greenish, fleshy, tawny-tomentose without. Seeds 21,2,5. Flowering and fruit: December-July
Mangifera indica L. Vernacular name: Mavina mara Family: Anacardiaceae Description: Evergreen tree. Leaves are simple, oblong-lanceolate, acute or acuminate at apex. Flowers are small, bisexual, brone on much-branched panciles. Fruit is a single-seeded fleshy drupe1,2,3,5. Native: India Flowering and fruit: January - June
	Maytenus emarginata (Willd.) Ding Hou Vernacular name: Thanasimale Family: Celastraceae Description: Climbing shrub. Leaves glabrous, obtuse and serrate, subcoriaceous. Fruit capsule globose, 0.5 cm long1,2,3. Native: Indomalesia Flowering and fruit: December - February
Melia dubia Cav. Vernacular name: Bettada bevu mara Family: Meliaceae Description: Deciduous tree. Leaves compound with tooth leaflets. Flowers small, greenish-yellow in much branched inflorescence. Fruit are green, ellipsoidal with a single seed covered by hard grey1,2,3,4. Native: India, Tropical Asia, Angola, Australia; Flowering and fruit: January - February
		Memecylon umbellatum Burm.f. Vernacular name: Mundi Alle Family: Melastomataceae Description: Tree. Leaf blade ovate-elliptic, nerves faintly visible. Calyx campanulate. Fruit berry to 5 mm in diameter1,2,3,5. Native: India, Sri Lanka Flowering and fruit: March - July
Merremia tridentata (L.) Hallier f. Vernacular name: Prasarani Family: Convolvulaceae Description: Perennial spreading herbs. Leaves simple, variable, linear, spathulate, linear-hastate or oblong-obovate. Flowers axillary, solitary or 2 -3 flowered cyme. Fruits capsule ovoid, glabrous, 4-valved1,2,3,4. Flowering and fruit: June-January						Source-2
Source-2		Miliusa tomentosa (Roxb.) Finet & Gagnep. Family: Annonaceae Description: Tree. Leaf blade elliptic or ovate – lanceolate, acute, rounded at base. Flowers solitary or in leaf-opposed or terminal. Fruitlets stalked, subglobose, tomentose1,2,3,4. Native: India, Nepal Flowering and fruit: February – March
Mimosa pudica L. Vernacular name: Olamucchaga Family: Fabaceae Description: Prickly herb. Leaves alternate compound. Leaflets many on secondary rachis. Flowers aggregated into globose head. Fruit is a flat pod with constictions between seeds1,2,3,4. Native: South America Flowering and fruit: July - October
Source-2		Mollugo pentaphylla L. Family: Gisekiaceae Description: Herb. Leaves linear-lanceolate to obovate, acute. Flowers white, numerous in lax corymbose cyme. Fruit capsule is oblong1,2,3,4. Native: India, Sri Lanka, Tropical America Flowering and fruit: July - January
Morinda pubescens J. E. Smith Family: Rubiaceae Habit: Deciduous tree. Leaves simple, opposite, decussate, stipules interpetiolar, connate, sheathing, bifid at apex. Flowers bisexual, white, in terminal, globose heads, calyx limb truncate. Fruit a syncarp, 15-18 mm across, pyrenes 4. Seeds not winged1,2,3.4. Flowering and fruit: March-June
Source-2		Murdannia semiteres (Dalzell) Santapau Family: Commelinaceae Description: Small herb. Leaves simple, linear. Flowers are small, branched inflorescence. Fruit is a subglobose capsule1,2,3,5. Native: India Flowering and fruit: July - October

Naringi crenulata (Roxb.) Nicolson Vernacular name: Kadubilvapatre Family: Rutaceae Description: Tree. Leaf rachis to 7 cm long, elliptic to elliptic-lanceolate, obtuse at apex, crenate. Cyme inflorescence. Fruit berry globose, bluish-black1,2,3. Native: India, Sri Lanka, South-east Asia; Flowering and fruit: September - December
Source-2		Oldenlandia herbacea (L.) Roxb. Vernacular name: Chaayaparpatika Family: Rubiaceae Description: Herb. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, rigid. Fruit capsule loculicidal with protruding crown1,2,3. Native: Africa Flowering and fruit: January-July
Olea dioica Roxb. Vernacular name: Bilisarole Family: Oleaceae Description: Evergreen tree. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, entire. Flower white1,2,3. Native: Indian sub-continent Flowering and fruit: January-February
		Oplismenus compositus (L.) P. Beauv. Family: Poaceae Description: Perennial grass. Leaves lanceolate, linear, acuminate, flat, thin, dull-green hairy. Inflorescence a paniculate raceme. Spikelets hairy, lanceolate, acuminate, greenis-purple. Awns longer than glumes, often reddish1,2,3. Native: Pantropics; Flowering and fruit: August - October
Panicum sp. Family: Poaceae
		Parthenium hysterophorus L. Family: Asteraceae Description: Herb. Leaves pubescent, lobes entire, acute. Florets white.ligule in female floret supported by 2 hyaline wings at base1,2,3. Native: West Indies, Central & North America Flowering and fruit: Throughout the year
Pavetta breviflora DC. Family: Rubiaceae Description: Tree. Branched smooth. Leaves elliptic, bluntly acuminate, narrowed to the short petiole. Flowers in corymbs of perfect cymes. Fruit black, containing one or two stones1,2,3. Flowering and fruits: April-May; May-August.
	Pavonia odorata Willd. Vernacular name: Balarakshi gida Family: Malvaceae Description: Shrub. Leaves orbicular – ovate, acute, usually cordate at base. Corolla 1.3 cm long, white or pink. Cocci smooth, pubescent1,2,3. Native: East Tropical Africa, Peninsular India, Burma Flowering and fruit: September - October
Pennisetum sp Family: Poaceae
Source-2	Perotis indica (L.) Kuntze Family: Poaceae Description: Herb. Blade to 2*0.4 cm with glabrous sheath. Raceme slender, often purplish1,2,3. Native: Indomalaysia Flowering and fruit: August - October
Phoenix sylvestris (L.) Roxb. Family: Arecaceae Description: A graceful palm with 16 m tall. Leaves 3-4.5 m long, greyish-greenm flowers small, fragrant, borne in spadices. Fruiting spadix about 90 cm long, bearing oblong-ellipsoid berries. Seeds 1.7 cm long, deeply grooved with rounded ends1,2,3. Flowering and fruit: April - December
	Phyllanthus emblicaL. Vernacular name: Bettada nelli kaayi Family: Phyllanthaceae Description: Tree. Leaves apiculate obtuse, rounded or cordate at base, glaucous beneath. Flowers usually monoecious. Fruit fleshy more than 1.5 cm in diameter1,2,3. Native: India, South-east Asia; Flowering and fruit: July-February
Phyllanthus simplex Retz. Family: Phyllanthaceae Description: An erect or diffuse herb. Leaves subsessile, closely placed and often overlapping, linear-oblong, obtuse or acute at apex. Fruit capsule depressed-globose, long-stalked1,2,3. Flowering: More or less throughout the year.					Source-15
Source-2	Polycarpaea corymbosa (L.) Lam. Vernacular name: Poudaemullugida Family: Caryophyllaceae Description: An erect herb. Leaves simple, linear, hairy and opposite in whorls. Flowers are small in compact bunches of white. Fruit is a capsule1,2,3. Native: Africa, Asia, Australia Flowering and fruit: August - March
Polygala elongata Klein ex Willd. Family: Polygalaceae Description: Herb. Leaves linear, lanceolate, elliptic, linear. Flowers are usually in terminal raceme. Fruit is a rhomboidal capsule1,2,3. Native: India Flowering and fruit: August - January					Source-2
	Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre Vernacular name: Hongemara Family: Fabaceae Description: Medium-sized deciduous tree. Leaves are imparipinnate with 2-3 pairs of broad leaflets. Flowers are in short clusters, pea-like. Fruit is a flattened, oval, woody pod that dehisces at both ends1,2,3. Native: India
Premna tomentosa Willd. Family: Lamiaceae Description: Trees upto 15 m high. Leaves simple, opposite, estipulate, broadly ovate, base obtuse or cordate, apex acuminate, margin entire. Flowers bisexual, yellow, in terminal and axillary corymbs. Fruit a drupe, ovoid, 5-6 mm long. Seeds 41,2,3,4. Flowering and fruit: February - April
			Psydrax umbellata (Wight) Bridson Family: Rubiaceae Description: Medium tree. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, shortly acuminate, acute. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, shortly acuminate, acute. Umbel Inflorescence. Fruit drupe ovoid 1.5 cm long1,2,3,5. Native: South India, Burma
Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. Vernacular name: Benga mara Family: Fabaceae Description: Deciduous native tree. Leaves alternate, pinnately compound and entire leaflets. Flowers in terminal, highly branched. Fruit is winged one seeded pod1,2,3,4. Native: India; Flowering and fruit: August - October
			Pterolobium hexapetalum (Roth) Sant. & Wagh Vernacular name: Bada Bakka Family: Fabaceae Description: Shrub. Leaf rachis 12-18 cm long. Calyx rose, Corolla yellowish-white. Pod pinkish-red. 5*1 cm1,2,3. Native: India Flowering and fruit: August - February
Rotala fimbriata Wt. Common name: Lilac Tasselflower Family: Lythraceae Description: Slender herb. Leaves are decussate, lanceolate to oblong. Flowers small sessile either single or in groups of few. Fruits is elongate-ellipsoid1,2,3. Native: India; Flowering and fruit: September – January
			Santalum album L. Vernacular name: Srigandha mara Family: Santalaceae Description: A small evergreen semi-parasitic. Leaves are simple, opposite, shortly-stalked, glossy and elliptic. The flowers are bell-shaped small, purplish-brown1,2,3. Native: India; Flowering and fruit: Appears once in late summer and again between October and December.
Sarcostemma acidum (Roxb.) Voigt Vernacular name: Hambukalli Family: Apocynaceae Description: Climbing shrub. Lobed corolla, margin revolute. Style apex short conical, entire, not exerted1,2,3. Native: Peninsular India Flowering and fruit: August – February						Source-2
Source-16			Schizachyrium exile (Hochst.) stapf Family: Poaceae Description: An annual herb. Culms upto 15 cm tall. Leafsheaths 1-3 cm long, glabrous, ligule membranous. Sessile spikelet dorsally compressed. Lower glume lanceolate, keeled, hairy1,2,3,5. Flowering and fruit: August - December
Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Merr. Vernacular name: Kendala Family: Sapindaceae Description: Amedium-sized tree. Leaves are large, compound with oblong leaflets, sessile. Flowers are small in panicles at the nodes. Fruit is grape or olive-shaped with a pointed beak, slightly prickly1,2,3,4. Native: India ; Flowering and fruit: February - May				Source-2
			Semecarpus anacardium L.f. Vernacular name: Kari geru Family: Anacardiaceae Description: Medium- sized deciduous tree. Leaves are large, coriaceous, obovate-oblong. Flowers in panicles, greenish-white, small and polygamous. Fruit is a resinous nut1,2,3,4. Native: Sub Himalayan; Flowering and fruit: July - September

Senna occidentalis (L.) Link Vernacular name: Kola thagache Family: Fabaceae Description: Herb. Leaves alternate, paripinnate with glands above pulvinus. Flowers solitary, axillary, 0.4 cm across. Pod flat, pubescent. 10-14 seeded, 2.5 cm long1,2,3,4,5. Native: Central & South America Flowering and fruit: October - February					Source-2
Source-2				Senna siamea (Lam.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby Family: Fabaceae Description: Trees. Leaves long, estipulate, eglandular. Corymb in axillary and terminal panicles. Pod 15-25*1 cm flattened1,2,3,5. Native: South East Asia Flowering and fruit: March – February
Setaria sp Family: Poaceae
				Shorea roxburghii G. Don Family: Dipterocarpaceae Description: Trees upto 25 m bark, brownish to grey-brown, blaze creamy-yellow, fibrous. Leaves simple, alternate, stipule large, coriaceous, stout, glabrous. Flowers bisexual, light pink, in drooping axillary and terminal panicles. Fruit capsule, enclosed within accrescent sepals, wings oblong, unequal, obovoid1,2,3,5. Native: Indo-Malesia; Flowering and fruit: February-June
Sida acuta N. Burm. Vernacular name: Dodda bindige gida Family: Malvaceae Description: Erect herbs, nearly glabrous. Petiole to 5mm long, ovate or linear-lanceolate. Calyx lobes triangular, acute cocci 7, shortly awned1,2,3,5. Native: Pantropical; Flowering and fruit: August - February
Source-2				Sida cordata (Burm. f.) Borss. Waalk. Vernacular name: Bekkinatale gida Family: Malvaceae Description: Herb. Leaves ovate, acute-acuminate, dentate. Flowers solitary axillary, in few-flowered racemes. Cocci 2-toothed and hairy at apex1,2,3,4. Native: India, Sri Lanka, Tropical Africa Flowering and fruit: July - February
Sida mysorensis Wight. & arn. Vernacular name: Antututti Family: Malvaceae Description: Erect herb. Leaves ovate, acuminate, dentate. Flowers solitary axillary, or in racemes shorter than leaves. Cocci 2-toothed and hairy at apex1,2,3,4. Native: India to Malesia; Flowering and fruit: January						Source-17
				Sida rhombifolia L. Family: Malvaceae Description: Subshrubs. Leaves 2-5*1.5-3.5 cm, rhomboid, apex acute, base acute or cuneate. Flowers axillary, solitary or in clusters, yellow, lobes triangular to 3 mm. tomentose outside. Schizocrap enclosed in calyx, semiorbicular, mericarps 8-10, awned at apex to 1 mm1,2,3,5. Flowering and fruit: September - December
Smilax sp Family: Smilacaceae
				Sopubia delphinifolia (L.) G. Don Family: Orobanchaceae Description: Erect branching herb. Leaves opposite, pinnatifid, lobes linear, narrow. Flowers axillary, solitary, passing on to terminal few-flowered leafy racemes. Fruit a capsule, oblong, green, seeds numerous, oblong, minute, brown, slightly compressed1,2,3. Flowering and fruit: July; October - January
Spermacoce articularis L.f. Family: Rubiaceae Description: A diffuse herb. Leaves elliptic to elliptic-oblong or obovate, subsessile. Flowers in axillary few-flowered clusters. Capsules hispid, obovoid. Seeds oblong1,2,3. Flower: More or less throughout the year.
Source-2	Spermacoce ocymoides Burm.f. Family: Rubiaceae Description: Herb. Leaves elliptic-oblong, sparsely scabrous, base cuneate to attenuate, apex acute, subsessile. Flowers in axillary fascicle. Capsule truncate, dehiscing transversely1,2,3. Flowering and fruit: July - December
Spermacoce pusilla wall. Family: Rubiaceae Description: An erect slender herb. Leaves linear-lanceolate, scabrid, lateral veins. Flowers minute, in dense axillary and terminal capitate clusters. Corolla pink, funnel-shaped. Capsules ellipsoidal, glabrescent1,2,3. Flowering: August - September
Source-18	Spermacoce stricta L.f. Family: Rubiaceae Description: Erect herb. Leaves opposite, simple, linear-lanceolate, ovate-oblong, thick, narrow, entire, acute or acuminate. Inflorescence an axillary condensed fascicle or head. Fruit capsule, narrow, glabrous. Seed ellipsoid or rounded, grooved1,2,3. Flowering and fruit: July – September
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl Family: Verbenaceae Description: Herb. Leaves elliptic-ovate, obtuse or acute at apex, cuneate. Spikes upto 40 cm long. Corolla 8-11 mm long, blue-purple1,2,3. Native: Tropical America Flowering: More or less throughout the year.
		Stereospermum tetragonum DC. Family: Bignoniaceae Description: Tree. Leaves once-pinnate, leaf axis 12 cm long. Calyx 0.6 cm long, unequaly and shortly lobed. Corolla yellow, sparsely pubescent. Capsule 4-angled1,2,3. Native: India, Burma, Sri Lanka Flowering and fruit: March - November
Striga angustifolia (Don) Sald. Family: Orobanchaceae Description: Parasite herb. Leaves linear, scabrid, subopposite or alternate. Corolla white, exceeding calyx. Flowers axillary, solitary, passing on to terminal leafy spikes. Fruit a capsule, oblong-ellipsoid, loculicidal. Seeds minute, black, truncate1,2,3. Native: Indomalaysia; Flowering and fruit: August - November						Source-2
Source-2		Strychnos potatorum L.f. Vernacular name: Chilu Family: Loganiaceae Description: Tree. Leaves elliptic, acute at both ends. Cymes usually on old wood. Corolla tube longer than lobes. Fruit 1-1.5 cm wide1,2,3. Native: Burma, Central & Peninsular India, Sri Lanka Flowers: September - June
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Vernacular name: Neerale Family: Myrtaceae Description: Tall tree. Leaves simple, elliptic, lush-green and leathery with insect galls. Numerous flowers aggregate into dense cluster with long stamens. Fruit is globose to oblong, single-seeded berries1,2,3. Native: South-east Asia; Flowering and fruit: February - September
Source-2		Syzygium salicifolium (Wight) J. Graham Vernacular name: Simpi neerale Family: Myrtaceae Description: Tree. Leaves shortly petiolate, subcoriaceous, linear elliptic. Cyme panicled, axillary or extra-axillary. Flower small, white. Berry oblong to 1.5 cm long1,2,3. Native: India; Flowering and fruit: February - May
Tamarindus indica L. Vernacular name: Hunase mara Family: Fabaceae Description: A medium to large size deciduous tree. Leaves are pinnately compound with small leaflets. Flowers are small many, pale green and colour. Fruit is a bean like pod fleshy, green at first1,2,3. Native: Tropical Africa Flowering and fruit: Late Summer						Source-2
Source-2		Tarenna asiatica (L.) Kuntze ex K. Schum. Family: Rubiaceae Description: Shrub. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, shortly acuminate, rounded. Corolla tube shorter than lobes. Fruit berry 2 mm across, globose1,2,3. Native: Indomalaysia Flowering and fruit: August – March
Tectona grandis L.f. Vernacular name: Thega mara Family: Lamiaceae Description: Deciduous tree. Leaves are large, opposite pairs with variable shapes. Flowers are small white, sweet-scented. Fruit is hard and enveloped by bladder like calyx1,2,3. Native: South-east Asia; Flowering and fruit: June - October
		Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. Vernacular name: Kolingii Family: Fabaceae Description: Undershrubs. Leaf rachis 6 cm long, leaflets oblanceolate. Raceme many flowered. Corolla pink. Pod slightly curved, glabrous. 4 seeded1,2,3. Native: India, Sri Lanka, Old World Tropics; Flowering and fruit: All Seasons
Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn. Vernacular name: Holimathi Family: Combretaceae Description: A large evergreen tree. Leaves are simple, oblong, crenulate and leathery in texture, petiole glandular. Flowers are small, white and are borne on catkins. Fruit is ovoid with 5-7 angles or wings1,2,3. Native: India; Flowering and Fruit: May - February
		Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Vernacular name: Shanti mara Description: Tree upto 15 m. Leaves clustered at ends of branchlets, coriaceous, broadly elliptic to elliptic- obovate. Spikes clustered towards apex, simple. Flowers creamy-white. Calyx hairy. Fruits ovoid, slightly 5-ridged, brown-pubescent1,2,3. Native: Indomalaya
Terminalia chebula Retz. Vernacular name: Anile kaayi mara Family: Combretaceae Description: Tree. Leaves elliptic-oblong, obtuse or acute at apex, rounded at base. Spike simple or branched. Flowers pale yellow, disc densely villous. Fruit elliptic-ovoid, glabrous1,2,3. Native: India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka; Flowering and fruit: February - November
Source-19			Terminalia elliptica Willd. Family: Combretaceae Description: Deciduous tree. Leaves simple, opposite to subopposite, exstipulate. Flowers bisexual, dull yellow, in terminal and axillary paniculate spikes. Fruit drupe, coriaceous1,2,3. Flowering and fruit: April-May
Terminalia paniculata Roth Vernacular name: Hanalu mara Family: Combretaceae Description: Tree. Leaves subopposite or upper ones alternate, lamina elliptic-oblong, with sessile glands at base beneath. Flowers white, calyx hairy outside. Fruit brownish –red, unequally 3 winged1,2,3. Native: India; Flowering and fruit: August - January							Source-2
Source-2			Themeda triandra Forssk. Family: Poaceae Description: Perennial grass. Culms robust, densely tufted. Leaves narrowly linear, acuminate. Fascicles inflorescence drooping. Spikelets show conspicuous awns1,2,3. Native: India, Sri Lanka, Pantropics Flowering and fruit: October – December
Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. Vernacular name: Dodda kaadu menasu Family: Rutaceae Description: Slender prickly shrub. Leaves alternate, 3-foliate, leaflets obovate, crenate, glabrous, gland-dotted. Inflorescence a panicle, elongated. Flowers unisexual. Fruit a berry, sub-globose, fleshy, 5-6 lobed1,2,3. Native: Africa; Flowering and fruit: Throughout the year
			Tribulus terrestris L. Vernacular name: Neggele mullu Family: Zygophyllaceae Description: Procumbent herb. Leaves opposite, compound. Flowers pedicelled, solitary, axillary, sepals 5, acute. Mericarp with 2 large and 2 smaller spines1,2,3. Native: Paleotropics
Trichodesma zeylanica (L.) R. Br. Family: Boraginaceae Description: Erect herb. Leaves lanceolate, hairy with a sharp tip. Flowers are clusters at branch ends, pale blue and spread like a wheel. Fruits are ovoid nutlets1,2,3. Native: India, Sri Lanka, Malaya, Australia, Mascarene Island Flowering and fruit: September - March							Source-20
Source-2			Tridax procumbens L. Vernacular name: Kari balli Family: Asteraceae Description: Perennial hairy herb. Leaves simple alternate. Flowers heterogamous heads. Fruit tiny, dark with a crown of hairs1,2,3. Native: Central America Flowering and fruit: Year long
Triumfetta annua L. Family: Malvaceae Description: Herbs. Leaves ovate, acuminate, serrate dentate, membranous. Flowers in axillary few-flowered cymes. Fruits glabrous, 1.3 cm1,2,3. Native: Tropical Africa to Malesia Flowering and fruit: November - December							Source-2
Source-2			Tylophora indica (Burm. F.) Merr. Vernacular name: Aadu muttada balli Family: Apocynaceae Description: Twiners. Leaves simple, opposite, elliptic to ovate. Inflorescence is compound umbellate lateral cyme. Fruit is a cylindrical follicle1,2,3. Native: India; Flowering and fruit: May - September
Vangueria spinosa (Roxb. ex Link) Roxb. Family: Rubiaceae Description: Shrub. Leaves arranged opposite or whorls of three. Flowers cymes occur in leaf axils. Flowers small, greenish-white. Fruit is small size1,2,3. Flower: March - April
			Ventilago madraspatana Gaertn. Vernacular name: Aithaala beelu Family: Rhamnaceae Description: Liana. Leaves oblong – elliptic, acute or shortly acuminate, calyx tomentose. Disc villous around the style. Fruit calyx only covering base of nut1,2,3. Native: Sri Lanka, Myanmar; Flowering and fruit: December - February

Vitex altissima L.f. Vernacular name: Bharanige Family: Lamiaceae Description: A large dry deciduous and semi evergreen forests. Leaves are compound with three or five leaflets. Flowers are numerous on branched inflorescence, small. Fruit are small and purplish-black when ripe1,2,3. Native: Tropical Asia; Flowering and fruit: October - December
Source-2					Vitex negundo L. Vernacular name: Lakki gida Family: Lamiaceae Description: A large shrub. Leaves are with 3-5 leaflets, lanceolate, acute. Flowers are small in stalked bunches with bluish-purple 5-lobed petals. Fruits are globose black berries1,2,3. Native: India, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan, Sri Lanka Flowering and fruit: More or less throughout the year
Vitis auriculata Wall. Family: Vitaceae Description: Huge Climber. Leaves 5-foliate, leaflet ovate, elliptic-lanceolate, stipules, 5-foliate. Flowers greenish-white in axillary umbels. Fruit berries 1.5 cm long, glabrescent. Seeds rugose, 2 –pitted, furrowed1,6. Flowering and fruit: May-November								Source- 21
	Waltheria indica L. Vernacular name: Ottatti gida Family: Malvaceae Description: Subshrub. Leaves simple, alternateand stipulate with characteristic. Flowers in axillary or terminal fascicles. Fruit is a capsule1,2,3. Native: India; Flowering and fruit: August - January
Wrightia arborea (Dennst.) Mabb. Vernacular name: Benki gida Family: Apocynaceae Description: Deciduous tree. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, elliptic or obovatem shortly acuminate at apex. Flowers in short corymbose tomentose cyme. Carpels connate into cylindrical capsule with two longitudinal groove1,2,3. Flowering and fruit: April - September
	Wrightia tinctoria Vernacular name: Hale neeli kodumurki Family: Apocynaceae Description: A small deciduous tree. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, acute or acuminate at apex, acute at base, glabrous or puberulous beneath. Flowers in axillary or terminal lax, spreading cymes. Follicles 2, cylindrical, cohering at the apex1,2,3. Flower: March - April
		Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub. Vernacular name: Jambe Family: Fabaceae Description: Unarmed tree. Leaflets 3-5 pairs, elliptic-lanceolate, acuminate, with glands in between. Corolla yellowish-white. Pod brown-pubescent, axe-shaped1,2,3. Native: Indomalesia; Flowers: March – May, Fruit: May - January
Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Vernacular name: Bugari mara Family: Rhamnaceae Description: Tree. Leaves simple, elliptic-ovate to orbicular, palmately nerved with stipules modified into hooked spines. Flowers small, in axillary clusters. Fruit is orange red berry1,2,3. Native: India; Flowering and fruit: December - January						Source-2
		Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Mill. Vernacular name: Choori mullu Family: Rhamnaceae Description: A ferruginous prickly shrub with recurved prickles. Leaves are ovate, 3-4 nerved with tomentum. Flowers are axillary, sessile, 10-lobed yellowish disc at th ecentre. Fruit is a drupe1,2,3. Native: India, Sri Lanka, Pantropics; Flowering and fruit: April- June
Zornia gibbosa Span. Family: Fabaceae Description: Diffuse herb. Leaflets lanceolate, acute. Calyx 0.25 cm long. Corolla yellow, 0.5 cm long. Pod 2-5 jointed2,3. Native: Tropics Flowering and fruit: June - November
			Feronia elephantum Vernacular name: Belada mara Family: Rutaceae Description: Deciduous thorny tree. Leaves pinnately compound. Flowers small. Fruits are large globes, size of a tennis ball1,2,3. Native: India; Flowering and fruit: March - April
Osbeckia sp Family: Melastomaceae
Source-2			Dodonaea viscosa Family: Sapindaceae Description: Small tree. Leaves simple, linear-oblong, oblanceolate. Inflorescence is panicle of racemes. Flowers are polygamous, corolla is white. Fruit is a capsule 1.5 cm broad with wings1,2,3. Native: India, Sri Lanka Tropics Flowering and fruit: October - March
Cipadessa fruticosa Vernacular name: Sidigolla Family: Meliaceae Description: Shrub. Leaf rachis to 27 cm long, leaflets 9-13, elliptic to elliptic-lanceolate, acuminate. Sepals sparsely pubescent, seeds not winged, exarillate1,2,3. Native: Indomalesia; Flowering and fruit: Year long
Source-2			Desmodium pulchellum Family: Fabaceae Description: Erect undershrubs. Leaves 3-foliate, leaflets elliptic-ovate, repand, obtuse, apiculate, tomentose beneath. Flowers 3-5, hidden by orbicular bractd. Pod with 1-3 round, reticulate, glabrous joints1,2,3. Native: China, Indomalesia Flowering and fruit: December - January
Flemingia strobilifera Vernacular name: Kanpoothi Family: Fabaceae Description: Shrub. Leaf 1-foliate, ovate-lanceolate. Peduncle zig-zag. Calyx 0.6 cm long wings shorter than keel. Pod 2-seeded1,2,3. Native: Indomalesia Flowering and fruit: November – March.						Source-2
Source-22			Oxytenanthera stocksii Family: Poaceae Description: An erect bamboo. Culms upto 9 m high and 2.5 – 3.8 cm in diameter. Leaves linear-lanceolate, base rounded or cuneate, tip ending in a setaceous point. Inflorescence a large panicle of spicate heads1,2,3.
Hemidesmus indicus Vernacular name: Anantha beru Family: Apocynaceae Description: Climber. Leaves simple, opposite, decussate, narrow or broadly oblong. Flowers are crowded in subsessile. Fruit is a follicle and sseeds are brownish-white hairs1,2,3. Native: India, Sri Lanka; Flowering and fruit: Throughout the year
Source-2				Ficus benghalensis Vernacular name: Aladamara Family: Moraceae Description: Evergreen tree. Leaves are leathery, simple, alternate, ovate with prominent veins. Figs about 2 cm diameter1,2,3. Native: India Flowering and fruit: Throughout the year
Hybanthus enneaspermus Vernacular name: Purusharathna Family: Violaceae Description: Branching herb. Leaves are linear-lanceolate with shallowly-crenate margin. Flowers axillary, long-petioled, bilipped. Fruit is a capsule1,2,3. Native: Tropics, South Asia; Flowering and fruit: July -December						Source-2
Source-23				Crotalaria striata Family: Fabaceae Description: Glabrescent undershrubs. Leaves 3-foliolate, leaflets usually elliptic, acute-mucronate, membranous. Raceme terminal, many flowered. Pod glabrescent, exserted1,2,3. Native: Africa Flowering and fruit: September - April
Schefflera venulosa Family: Araliaceae Description: Large woody straggling shrub or a tree. Leaves palmately compound, leaflets elliptic lanceolate. Inflorescence is an umbel. Flowers are 5-merous. Fruits is a schizocarp1,2,3. Native: Indo-Malaysia and Tropical Australia Flowering and fruit: April - June						Source-2
Source-2				Solanum torvum Vernacular name: Sundekkayi Family: Solanaceae Description: Large shrub with prickles on stem. Leaves ovate-lanceolate, hairy and shallowly lobed. Flowers corymbose cymes. Fruits a globose berry and is green1,2,3. Native: West Indies Flowering and fruit: Throughout the year.
Acacia catechu Vernacular name: Kachhu Family: Fabaceae Description: Deciduous tree. Leaves compound with many leaflets and spines on either side of leaf base. Flowers small, white or pale yellow. Pod many seeded2. Native: India; Flowering and fruit: June-October							Source-2
Source-2		Stereospermum chelonoides Family: Bignoniaceae Description: Deciduous tree. Leaves imparipinnate, leaflets 5-9 number, base acute. Flowers purple dull, fragrant, in large axillary panicles. Fruit capsule terete2. Native: Myanmar Flowering and fruit: September - February

2.0 Floristic diversity, status and conservation aspect of Bannerghatta National Park and buffer area

Table 1: Forest quadrat study localities in BNP buffer area

2.2 Results and Discussion

Table 12: Most abundant trees in buffer area.