CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF WETLAND ECOSYSTEMS IN KARNATAKA

Ramachandra T.V. and  Ahalya N. Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012 E-mail: cestvr@ces.iisc.ernet.in               ahalya@ces.iisc.ernet.in

 

1 Introduction 2. Biodiversity in Freshwater Ecosystems of India 3. Wetland losses 4. Spatial and Temporal tools for Sustainable Management of wetlands 5. Wetland protection laws 6. Restoration of lakes 7. National Wetland Strategy 8. Wetlands of Karnataka 9. The interconnectivity of wetlands 10. Impact of urbanisation on wetlands 11. Characterisation of wetlands 12. Bangalore wetlands 13. Inter district wetlands 14. Restoration of lakes in Bangalore 15. Bangalore wetland birds 16. Watershed-based approach for Sustainable Management of wetlands 17 Acknowledgements 18 References 19 Annexcure

PROLOGUE :

    Aquatic ecosystems in India (lakes, rivers, etc.) support a large diversity of biota representing almost all taxonomic groups. Algae in open waters represent the floristic diversity and macrophytes dominate the wetlands. It is difficult to analyse the algal diversity in India with reference to different habitats, endemicity to India, as well as the changes that occur due to anthropogenic disturbances. The total number of aquatic plant species exceeds 1200 species. Fish fauna is divided into two classes, viz., Chondrichthyes (131 species under 67 genera, 28 families and 10 orders) and Osteichthyes (2,415 species belonging to 902 genera, 226 families and 30 orders). As per estimates, Indian wetlands support around 2400 species and subspecies of birds. Studies reveal that habitat losses have threatened the diversity of these ecosystems and introduced exotic species like water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) and salvinia (Salvinia molesta) have threatened the wetlands and clogged the waterways competing with the native vegetation.

    The spatial extent of Indian wetlands is estimated to be 58.2 million hectares and is directly or indirectly dependent on the rivers like Godavari, Tapti, Ganga, Brahmaputra, Narmada, Krishna and Cauvery. Remotely sensed data in association with the geographical information systems provides a cost and time-effective tool for identification, mapping, inventorying and monitoring physical resources of the watershed which combined with information on the socio-economic needs help immensely in the implementation of developmental activities.

    The water-spread area of wetlands in Karnataka in the pre-monsoon period is 204053.74 ha whereas in the post monsoon period it is 246643.00 ha. Out of the total 682 wetlands in the state, 71 have shown water-spread area of less than 56.25 ha. The seasonal variations in the wetland area are prevalent where the water levels fluctuate depending on their use and meteorological conditions. Hence the inland wetlands (pond, lakes, reservoirs and tanks) show seasonal variations in the water-spread.

    The lakes around Bangalore were mainly constructed for irrigation and drinking water supply. But now only 30% of the lakes are used for irrigation. Fishing is carried out in 25% of the lakes surveyed, Cattle grazing in 35%, agriculture in 21%, mud-lifting in 30%, drinking in 3%, washing in 36% and brick-making in 38% of the lakes. Analyses of status of waterbodies in Bangalore, the results revealed that some of the lakes needed urgent attention from the point of view of their unsuitability to sustain biological activity and diversity. The highly threatened lakes include Anchepalaya, Bellandur, Chikka Hulimavu, Harohalli, Kengeri, Kalkere, Nagavara, Nelamangala, Puttenhalli, Rachenahalli, Rampura, Tavarakere, Ulsoor, Varthur, Vengaiah, Yellchehalli and Yellamallappachetty.

    The number of lakes in Bangalore city has reduced from 262 in 1960 to around 81 at present. The spatial and temporal changes in the number of waterbodies were done with the help of GIS and remote sensing data. The spatial mapping of the water bodies in Bangalore district revealed that the number of waterbodies has decreased from 379 (138 in North and 241 in south) in 1973 to 246 (96-north and 150-south) in 1996. An overall decrease of 35.09% was attributed to urbanisation and industrialisation.

    The loss in wetland interconnectivity in Bangalore district is attributed to the enormous increase in population and the reclamation of tanks for various developmental activities. Analyses of Madivala and Bellandur drainage network revealed that encroachment and conversion has resulted in the loss of connectivity between Yelchenhalli kere and Madivala. Similarly the drainage network between Bellandur and Ulsoor is lost due to conversion of Chelgatta tank into a golf course.

    The loss of wetlands has led to decrease in catchment yield, water storage capacity, wetland area, number of migratory birds, floral and faunal diversity and ground water table. Studies reveal the decrease in depth of the ground water table from 35-40 to 250-300 feet in 20 years due to the disappearance of wetlands.

    Despite many environmental laws, there is no significant development towards sustaining these ecosystems due to the lack of awareness of the values of these ecosystems among the policymakers and implementation agencies. The effective management of these wetlands requires a thorough appraisal of the existing laws, institutions and practices. The involvement of various people from different sectors is essential in the sustainable management of these wetlands. Apart from government regulation, development of better monitoring methods is needed to increase the knowledge of the physical and biological characteristics of each wetland resources, and to gain, from this knowledge, a better understanding of wetland dynamics and their controlling processes.

    Sectoral approaches adopted in regional planning has led to breakdown of lake-watershed systems, which expediate agricultural phosphorus flows, draining and development of wetlands, dislodging of riparian vegetation, overfishing and spread of exotic species

    Restoration program should include all aspects of the ecosystems, including habitat restoration, reduction of phosphorus imports to farms, elimination of annoying species, reduced harvests of fish and restoration of native species from the ecosystem outlook with holistic approach designed at watershed level, rather than isolated manipulation of individual elements. The conservation and protection involves not only buffering wetlands from direct human pressures, but also maintaining important natural processes that operate on wetlands from outside, which may be altered by human activities. Management towards this goal should emphasize long term sustenance of historical, natural wetland functions and values.

1. INTRODUCTION :

    Wetland ecosystems account for about 6% of the global land area and are among the most threatened of all the environmental resources. Wetlands have long suffered significant losses and continue to face an on-going conversion threat from industrial, agricultural and residential developments as well as hydrological perturbation, pollution and pollution-related effects. The extensive tropical wetland resources in developing economies are also undergoing increasing change as a result of improving access to wetland zones, the pressures of population growth and economic development. Many wetlands have and are being degraded because of unsustainable levels of grazing and fishing activities. The continuing losses and enhanced appreciation of the values and functions of wetlands during the last 20 years, has led to wetland loss becoming a worldwide concern leading to international agreements like the RAMSAR convention in 1971 (IUCN, 1990).

    Wetlands are more valuable economic resources when retained in their natural or semi-natural state. Development projects have often stimulated wetland conversion largely because of lack of information and ignorance of planners about wetland functions and their role in sustainable development. Conversion or degradation of such natural capital assets will therefore not represent an increase in resource-use efficiency. Social inefficiency in wetland use is connected to the fact that wetlands are multifunctional resources and are under heavy utilisation pressure. The inefficiency is not a consequence of multiple-use conflict itself, but the fact that not all uses are properly evaluated and accounted for.

    India is richly endowed with wetlands. An annual average rainfall of over 130 cm, the different climatic regimes, variations in topography contribute to a diverse and wealthy wetland habitat. This is evident from the high-altitude lakes of the Himalayas; floodplain wetlands of major river systems and their extensive network of tributaries draining from the Indian landmass in all directions; saline and temporary wetlands of the arid and semi-arid expanses; inland coastal systems such as lagoons, backwaters and estuaries; mangrove swamps; marine wetlands; coral reefs associated with the island arcs, and so on. In fact, natural wetlands in India include the entire range of ecosystem types with the exception of bogs, fens and typical salt marshes. In addition, there are man-made wetlands, which number more than the natural ones. The diversity of rainfall regimes in the country has necessitated the construction of numerous large, medium and small reservoirs for irrigation, domestic water supply, electricity, fisheries, and flood control. The littoral zones of these reservoirs along with shallow ponds and numerous tanks have further added to the country's wetland wealth. It is estimated that freshwater wetlands alone account for about 20 per cent of the known range of biodiversity in India. The wetland classification system is given in the following Table 1

    Most of the major civilizations of the world have developed and flourished around these ecosystems. The people living around them exploit the economic, cultural and ecological resources. Although all wetlands do not provide valuable biodiversity, they may play an important role in sustaining the ecological health of the ecosystem and also the livelihood of the people dependent on them. Some of the wetlands are primarily used for food, fodder and building materials.

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1.1 DISTRIBUTION OF INDIA'S WETLANDS :

    According to the Directory of Indian wetlands, the area occupied by these ecosystems is 58.2 million hectares. Indian wetlands are directly or indirectly dependent on the rivers like Godavari, Tapti, Ganga, Brahmaputra, Narmada, Krishna and Cauvery. They occur in the hot arid regions of Gujarat and Rajasthan, the deltaic regions of the east and west Coast, highlands of central India, wet humid zones of south peninsular India and the Andaman and Nicobar and Lakswadeep islands. Based on agro-climatic zonation, Indian wetlands are grouped as:

1.2 SPATIAL SPREAD OF INDIAN WETLANDS :

    Despite the key role-played by the wetlands in maintaining the overall cultural, economic and ecological health of the ecosystem, they are fast disappearing from the landscape. Only a few of the ecologically sensitive regions are protected by the Wildlife Protection Act whereas several wetlands are becoming an easy target for anthropogenic exploitation. Survey of 147 major sites across various agroclimatic zones identified the anthropogenic interference as the main cause of wetland degradation (The Directory of Indian wetlands, 1995). Current spatial spread of wetlands under various categories is listed in Table 2 and in a pie chart (Parikh .and Parikh, 1999).

2.0 BIODIVERSITY IN FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS OF INDIA :

    Freshwater ecosystems support a wide diversity of flora and fauna that are used for a wide range of purposes by humans. The general goal of this irreplaceable biodiversity is to minimise its loss. The first step in conservation of biodiversity is to assess the diversity of natural resources present and identify those, which are important and most irreplaceable (Groombridge and Jenkins, 1998). Awareness of the unique nature of biodiversity, the plethora of factors contributing to decline in habitat quality and species populations has been growing in the past decade.

    In India, lakes, rivers and other freshwaters support a large diversity of biota representing almost all taxonomic groups. Algae in open waters represent the floristic diversity and macrophytes dominate the wetlands. It is difficult to analyse the algal diversity in India with reference to different habitats, endemicity to India, as well as the changes that occur due to anthropogenic disturbances. The total number of aquatic plant species exceeds 1200 species (Gopal., 1995). Table 3 and Table 4 list the estimated number of aquatic and wetland species of vascular plants and animals respectively (Source: Gopal, 1995).

2.1 DIVERSITY OF FISH IN INDIA:

    The Indian fish fauna is divided into two classes, viz., Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes. The Chondrichthyes are represented by 131 species under 67 genera, 28 families and 10 orders in the Indian region (Kar et.al, 2000). The Indian Osteichthyes are represented by 2,415 species belonging to 902 genera, 226 families and 30 orders, of which, five families, notably the family Parapsilorhynchidae are endemic to India. These small hillstream fishes include a single genus, viz., Parapsilorhynchus which contains 3 species. They occur in the Western Ghats, Satpura mountains and the Bailadila range in Madhya Pradesh only. Further, the fishes of the family Psilorhynchidae with the only genus Psilorhynchus are also endemic to the Indian region. Other fishes endemic to India include the genus Olytra and species Horaichthys setnai belonging to the families Olyridae and Horaichthyidae respectively. The latter occur from the Gulf of Kutch to Trivandrum coast. The endemic fish families form 2.21 per cent of the total bony fish families of the Indian region. 223 endemic fish species are found in India, representing 8.75 per cent of the total fish species known from the Indian region and 128 monotypic genera of fishes found in India, representing 13.20 per cent of the genera of fishes known from the Indian region.

    About 22000 species of fishes have been recorded in the world; of which, about 11% are found in Indian waters. Out of the 2200 species so far listed, 73 (3.32%) belong to the cold freshwater regime, 544 (24.73%) to the warm fresh waters domain, 143 (6.50%) to the brackish waters and 1440 (65.45%) to the marine ecosystem. Adequate protection of ecosystems is a necessary requirement for survival of all species and proper care is needed to overcome anthropogenic stresses. In the case of commercial species, rational exploitation is a pre-requisite for sustainability of the resources.

    There are about 450 families of freshwater fishes globally. Roughly 40 are represented in India (warm freshwater species). About 25 of these families contain commercially important species. Number of endemic species in warm water is about 544. Major warm water species are: Bagarius bagarius, Catla catla, Channa marulius, C. punctatus, C. striatus, Cirrhinus mrigala, Clarias batrachus, Heteropneustes fossilis, Labeo bata, L.calbasu, L. rohita, Aorichthys seenghala, Notopterus chitala, N. notopterus, Pangasius pangasius, Rita rita and Wallago attu

    Cyprinids (family: Cyprinidae), Live fish (family: Anabantidae, Clariidae, Channidae, Heteropneustidae), Cat fish (family: Bagridae, Silurdae, Schilbeidae), Clupeids (family: Clupeidae), Mullets (family: Mugilidae), featherbacks (family: Notopteridae), Loaches (family: Cobitidae), Eels (family: Mastacembelidae), Glass fishes (family: Chandidae) and Gobies (family: Gobiidae) are the major groups of fresh water fishes found in India

    Cyprinidae is one of the largest families and is well represented in India with species ranging from few millimeters in length (minnows) to more than a metre (major carps). Among the 544 freshwater fish species in India, Cyprinidae accounts for nearly 24.12%.
Many of the Cyprinids, especially carps, are widely captured and form the mainstay of culture operations. Depending on their growth and utility in culture systems, the carps are grouped as major carps (Catla catla, Cirrhinus mrigala, Labeo calbasu, Labeo rohita) and minor carps (L. fimbriatus, L. bata, C. cirrhosus, C. reba). A few exotic carps, as indicated below, have also been introduced into the country mainly for culture purposes (Hypopthalmichthys molitrix, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Cyprinus carpio). The mahseers are also included in cyprinidae. Though many species of the genus Tor are found in the high altitude cold waters, some species like Tor khudree and Tor putitora occur in warmer waters. The genus Tor thus reveals a wide range of species diversity as regards adaptation to different ecological conditions. There is a serious decline of mahseer fishery in different ecosystems endangering its very existence, thus warranting adequate conservation of the fishes. Threatened and endangered fish species are listed in the Annexure.

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3.0 WETLAND LOSSES:

    The current loss rates in India can lead to serious consequences, where 74% of the human population is rural (World Development Report, 1994) and many of these people are resource dependent. Healthy wetlands are essential in India for sustainable food production and potable water availability for humans and livestock. They are also necessary for the continued existence of India's diverse populations of wildlife and plant species; a large number of endemic species are wetland dependent. Most problems pertaining to India's wetlands are related to human population. India contains 16% of the world’s population, and yet constitutes only 2.42% of the earth's surface. Indian landscape has contained fewer and fewer natural wetlands over time. Restoration of these converted wetlands is quite difficult once these sites are occupied for non-wetland uses. Hence, the demand for wetland products (e.g., water, fish, wood, fibre, medicinal plants etc.) will increase with increase in population. Wetland loss refers to physical loss in the spatial extent or loss in the wetland function. The loss of one km2 of wetlands in India will have much greater impact than the loss of one km2 of wetlands in low population areas of abundant wetlands (Foote et al, 1996). The wetland loss in India can be divided into two broad groups namely acute and chronic losses. The filling up of wet areas with soil constitutes acute loss whereas the gradual elimination of forest cover with subsequent erosion and sedimentation of the wetlands over many decades is termed as chronic loss.

3.1 ACUTE WETLAND LOSSES:

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4. SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF WETLANDS:

    Spatial and temporal tools such as remote sensing data in conjunction with Geographic Information System (GIS) are effective for water resources development and management. The application encompasses water resource assessment, hydrologic modeling, flood management, reservoir capacity surveys, assessment and monitoring of the environmental impacts of water resources project and water quality mapping and monitoring (Saindranath Jonna, 1999).

    Remote sensing data provides information on the flood-inundated regions, delineation of the flood-risk zones and the status of flood control works, which are vital for effective flood management. The WiFS data from the IRS 1C/D encompassing 810 km and high temporal repetitiveness has helped in the zonation of flooding areas of large river bodies, thus helping in the preparation of state-wise and basin wise flood inventories.

    The improving spatial, spectral and temporal resolution of Indian Remote Sensing satellites has contributed towards irrigation management extending from inventorying to subsequent monitoring and management. The IRS-1A and 1B has helped in the development of methodologies for inventorying irrigation systems in regard to area irrigated, cropping pattern, condition and productivity and salinity/water logging. Remote sensing has been used not only for inventorying but also for cropping pattern, crop production and condition, monitoring irrigation status and in the diagnosis of poorly performing irrigation patterns. Satellite inventory of tank irrigation would cover census of functional tanks with recognised water impoundment and watershed area, silting during post monsoon and reduction in the water-spread area and irrigated area, and treatment of degraded tanks for soil conservation. In addition, the satellite remote sensing techniques provide valuable inputs on monitoring and evaluation of water resources project.

    The conservation of water and land resources depends on proper planning of the watershed and its characterisation. Watershed characterisation involves measurement of physiography, drainage pattern, geo-morphological, hydrological, land cover/land use, soil survey and assessment of its suitability for appropriate developmental activity. Satellite data in association with the geographical information systems provides a cost and time-effective tool for identification, mapping, inventorying and monitoring physical resources of the watershed which combined with information on the socio-economic needs of the watershed can help in the implementation of developmental activities.

    Usually, surface water quality is assessed using various traditional limnological methods, which is time consuming. But remote-sensing data paves way for economic methodology for assessing water quality and productivity in surface impoundment. The useful indicators include suspended materials visible to the human eye, which include suspended inorganic material, phytoplankton, organic detritus and dyes

    Many studies have been undertaken to examine the relationship between reflectance, suspended solid concentration, and chlorophyll-a concentration. The atmospheric reflectance of water-bodies in the near infrared wavelength range depends on the amount of suspended solids content i.e. as the concentration of suspended solids increases so does the reflectance.

     Remote sensing data is used for the analysis of water quality parameters and modeling. The relationship between different water quality parameters and the information from remote sensing data have been analysed and a good correlation between observed and simulated values are seen. Due to accuracy and repetitiveness, satellite data can provide information on the source of pollution and the point of discharge. Water bodies polluted due to industries or the inflow of sewage can be regularly monitored using multi-date satellite data.
In remote sensing, data/information is collected in discrete spectral intervals or spectral bands (an interval in the electromagnetic spectrum defined by two wavelengths or frequencies depending on the reflective/ emittive properties of the chosen application area). The following Table 5 gives information for management of aquatic ecosystems using remote sensing (Garg 1995, unpublished).

    The changes in the river course of Ganga - Padma river over space and time to delineate the vulnerable zones for environment management were attempted by Hazra and Bhattacharya (1999). In this connection, various geomorphological and geological features have been delineated using visual interpretation techniques. The results indicate the river will shift along its course due to natural calamity and in some places due to anthropogenic interferences.

    Microwave remote sensing offers the best tool for delineation of shallow buried courses because of its sensitivity to moisture and penetration capabilities in arid regions. Satellite remote sensing also helps in displaying anomalies in the terrain that are caused due to the pattern of vegetation/water bodies, sand-dunes, lithology, drainage courses, salt lakes, topography and slopes, natural breaks etc. which help in creating a conceptualised model of the extinct river-course. Hence it proves an effective tool for the study of the course of ancient Saraswati (Sharma et.al., 1999) more than any other method.

    Geographic Information System was used to develop a decision support system for farm level planning in Annur sub-watershed of the Kallar sub-catchment of Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu (Sivaswamy et.al., 1999). Thematic maps on the soil depth, soil texture, slope, soil erosion, present land-use and distribution of wells were generated. These maps were integrated to decide on the suitability of the land for agriculture, agro-horticulture and agro–forestry. Land-use options for the Annur sub-watershed showed that 33.9% of the area was suitable for intensive agriculture.

    GIS and remote sensing was used for the development of water resources in Sai-Gad sub-watershed of Almora District, Uttar Pradesh (Mohan et.al., 1999). Various thematic maps on the hydrogeomorphological characteristics, elevation, slope, drainage, surface water bodies and land-use have been generated and integrated for the action plan for Water Resources Development.

    For the evaluation of hydrogeochemical conditions of Niva river basin, Chittoor district in Andhra Pradesh. Drainage maps of the basin were prepared and the imagery data were interpreted using standard interpretation keys such as colour, tone, texture, and pattern of drainage, shape and topography. The results revealed that the underground potential of the basin is moderate to good (Rao et al, 1997).

    The study of drainage pattern can be made either through toposheets, aerial photographs or satellite images. Out of these, satellite images provide a synoptic view over a large area exhibiting a comprehensive means of mapping and study of drainage in relation to basin morphology, surface morphology and underlying geology. The drainage pattern of Jharia coalfield, Bihar, India as observed on IRS-1A LISS II image shows that the region is drained by 11 streams which eventually drain into river Damodar (Srivastava, 1997).

    Identification of hydrogeomorphic units is prerequisite to undertaking ground water exploration and development in any terrain. Use of satellite remote sensing data coupled with aerial photo-interpretation greatly aid in planning ground water exploration and help in locating the sources. Air-borne and space-borne data were used for the qualitative evaluation of ground water resources in Keonjhar district, Orissa (Das et al 1997). The study revealed the importance of hydrogeomorphological mapping from remotely sensed data in groundwater targeting in the structurally complex terrain of the district. Resistivity soundings and exploratory digging further corroborated the study

    Remote sensing, geophysical, DBTM (Digital Basement Terrain Model) and GIS (Geographic Information System) were used for sustainable utilisation of water resources of Alaunja watershed, located in ‘Chotanagpur’ plateau of Bihar (Ashok Kumar, 1999). The study helped in the prioritisation of water resource development in the watershed i.e., delineation of the area suitable for groundwater/surface water utilisation.

    With the development of highly precise remote sensing techniques in spatial resolution and GIS, the modeling of watershed has become more physically based and distributed to enumerate interactive hydrological processes considering spatial heterogeneity. A distributed model with SCS curve number method called as Land Use Change (LuC) model was developed (Mohan and Shresta, 2000) to assess the hydrological changes due to land use modification. The model developed was applied to Bagmati river catchment in Kathmandu valley basin, Nepal. The study clearly demonstrated that integration of remote sensing, GIS and spatially distributed model provides a powerful tool for assessment of the hydrological changes due to land-use modifications.

4.1 IMPACT OF SPATIAL AND SPECTRAL RESOLUTION ON QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF WETLAND ECOSYSTEM:

Hydrology is the key to the wetland health and species zonation. Mounting human-induced and natural pressures make it critical to develop techniques that monitor wetland responses to hydrologic changes. Remotely sensed images provide an instantaneous and synoptic view necessary for accurate mapping of changes. Aerial photography and optical imagery from satellite sensors offer synoptic coverage and aid in determining various factors related to wetlands (such as a predominately hydric soil that is saturated or covered with water and supports, predominately vegetation adapted for life in these conditions), but are constrained by the restricted penetration of visible and near-infrared radiation into vegetative canopies and by favourable weather and daylight (cloud cover and atmospheric haze). However, the radar imaging systems overcome many of these limitations by providing increased canopy penetrations and day and night acquisitions nearly independent of weather conditions (Ramsey III, 1995; Ramsey III and Laine, 1997).

    Numerous studies have shown that remote sensing techniques provide reliable and objective primary data on agricultural productivity, bioresource status and secondary data on related water management aspects to help better management. Cost and time effectiveness are some of the advantages of using remote sensing data and integrating several other data systems using G.I.S for taking rapid management decisions.

    Studies that used multispectral imaging system onboard the early Landsat satellites had limited success in mapping expansive and homogeneous inland wetlands and coastal marshes (Weismiller et al., 1977; Klemas et al., 1980). The Landsat MSS sensor declined when the Landsat Thematic mapper (TM) sensor with improved spectral and spatial resolutions became available. Later the launch of SPOT XMS, IRS and panchromatic sensors provided improved spatial resolutions, but a limited number of spectral bandwidths than the TM sensors (Klemas et al., 1993). The successful attempts by many organisations and agencies in the 90's helped develop wetland classes including a coastal land cover classification. IRS 1C, with a unique combination of payloads and capabilities and the resultant application material helped in this regard.

    The general distribution of wetlands is well known and in many cases only a binomial classification of wetland loss and gain provided on regional basis is required. Even with a simple binomial classification scheme, problems can be acute in complex marsh systems exhibiting extremely convoluted and heterogeneous landscapes. In these cases, problems with the MSS (Multi Spectral Sensors) spatial resolution hamper the generation of a binomial land and water mask. A further complication is the limited availability of cloud free imagery in tropical and subtropical areas. Plant phenology and flood conditions complicate the ability to discern marsh change by using the spectral reflectance of wetland features. This is particularly acute with seasonally or diurnally ephemeral features, such as the presence or absence of floating flora, the flooding and exposure of tides and the raising and lowering of water levels under the wetland canopy. Radar images can alleviate problems of cloud contamination, but land and water delineation can be problematic due to the possibility of high radar returns from inland water areas experiencing wind roughening

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5. WETLAND PROTECTION LAWS AND GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES:

    Wetlands are not delineated under any specific administrative jurisdiction. The primary responsibility for the management of these ecosystems is in the hands of the Ministry of Environment and Forests. Although some wetlands are protected after the formulation of the Wildlife Protection Act, the others are in grave danger of extinction. Effective coordination between the different ministries, energy, industry, fisheries revenue, agriculture, transport and water resources, is essential for the protection of these ecosystems.

    Wetlands in India are indirectly protected by an array of laws given below (Parikh. J and Parikh K., 1999):

    In addition to the above laws, India is a signatory to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands and the Convention of Biological Diversity. According to these formulations India is expected to conserve the ecological character of these ecosystems along with the biodiversity of the flora and fauna associated with these ecosystems. Despite these, there is no significant development towards sustaining these ecosystems due to the lack of awareness of the values of these ecosystems among the policymakers and implementation agencies. The effective management of these wetlands requires a thorough appraisal of the existing laws, institutions and practices. The involvement of various people from different sectors is essential in the sustainable management of these wetlands.

    Apart from government regulation, development of better monitoring methods is needed to increase the knowledge of the physical and biological characteristics of each wetland resources, and to gain, from this knowledge, a better understanding of wetland dynamics and their controlling processes. Discussions based on accurate knowledge and increased awareness of wetland issues can then begin to develop management strategies (to protect, restore and/or mitigate) that account for the function and value of all wetland resources in the face of natural and socioeconomic factors, while continuing to satisfy critical resource needs of the human population.

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6. RESTORATION OF LAKES:

    Sectoral approaches adopted in regional planning has led to breakdown of lake-watershed systems, which expediate agricultural phosphorus flows, draining and development of wetlands, dislodging of riparian vegetation, overfishing and spread of exotic species. Restoration means reestablishment of this ecosystem to a close proximity of its condition prior to its agitation or perturbation. Restoration is a technique or method used to improve the quality of water and its catchment conditions in order to make the wetland resources suitable for sustainable use. The goals for any restoration program should be realistic and tailored to individual regions, specific to the problems of degradation and based on the level of dependence. For lakes, resilient restoration program should include all aspects of the ecosystems, including habitat restoration, reduction of phosphorus imports to farms, elimination of annoying species, reduced harvests of fish and restoration of native species from the ecosystem outlook with holistic approach designed at watershed level, rather than isolated manipulation of individual elements. This often requires revision of the physical conditions, chemical regulation of the soil and water, biological manipulation, reintroduction of native flora and fauna etc.

    The preliminary step that has to be implemented in restoring lake for their long-term sustenance includes:

    On the basis of priority based on the severity of their problems, the other restoration methods are as follows:

6.1 INTERVENTION IN THE LAKE ECOSYSTEM :

6.2 REDUCTION IN THE EXTERNAL LOADING :

    A reduction of the external loading can be carried out either by elimination of the total wastewater input to the lake or by use of wastewater treatment method like screening, grit chamber, chemical precipitation and activated sludge process etc.

    As an extension of the restoration programme, watershed management practices are essential for proper land use, protecting land against all forms of deterioration, conserving water for farm use, proper management of local water for drainage, flood protection and sediment reduction and increasing productivity from all land uses. Key steps for best management practices include

•  Pollution alleviation practices might be applied to reduce the non-point source of pollution (mainly agricultural and storm runoff) through source reduction, waste minimisation and process control.

•  Afforestation with native species in desolate areas around the wetland to control the entry of silt from run off.

•  The shorelines of the lakes, lined with bricks or stones in an attempt to control shoreline erosion.

•  Constructed wetlands are recommended for the purpose of stormwater management and pollutant removal from the surface water flows.

•  Infiltration trenches would be useful in reducing the storm water sediment loads to downstream areas by temporarily storing the runoff.

•  Extended detention dry basins are to be provided in removing pollutants primarily through the settling of suspended solids.

•  On soils with a tendency to crust, management options include planting seeds at shallow depths, protecting the soil surface with mulch or crop residues, maintaining a rough soil surface by not over-tilling seed-beds, keeping the soil surface moist until seedlings emerge, selecting crops such as corn that are able to exert pressure during emergence, planting two to four seeds together to increase the pressure they exert during germination, and using transplants rather than seeds.

•  Promoting public education programs regarding proper use and disposal of agricultural hazardous waste materials and regular monitoring of lakes are rudimentary.

    The restoration programs with an ecosystem approach through Best Management Practices (BMPs) helps in correcting point and non-point sources of pollution. This along with regulations and planning for wildlife habitat and fishes helps in arresting the declining water quality and the rate in loss of wetlands. These restoration goals require profound planning, authority and funding along with the financial resources and active involvement from all levels of organisation (Governmental and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), research organisations, media, etc.) through interagency and intergovernmental processes all made favourable in innovating and inaugurating the restoration programs. Network of educational institutions, researchers, NGO's and the local people are suggested to help restore our fast perishing wetland ecosystem and conserve those at the verge of extinction by formulating viable plans, policies and management strategies.

    Restoration goals, objectives, performance indicators (indicates the revival or success of restoration project), monitoring, and assessment program should be viably planned so that project designers, planners, biologists, and evaluators have a clear understanding. Monitoring of restoration endeavors should include both structural (state) and functional (process) attributes. Monitoring of attributes at population, community, ecosystem, and landscape level is appropriate in this regard.

    Restoration strategy developed in collaboration with the government, researchers, stakeholders at all levels, and NGO's should

    It is important to give priority to repairing those systems that would become extinct without any intervention. Prioritizing systems for repair requires that a framework be developed categorizing the level of interventions. These categories should be based on:

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7. NATIONAL WETLAND STRATEGY:

    National wetland strategy should encompass (i) Conservation and collaborative management, (ii) Prevention of loss and restoration and (iii) Sustainable management. These include

 •  Protection: The primary necessity today is to protect the existing wetlands. Of the many wetlands in India only around 68 wetlands are protected. But there are thousands of other wetlands that are biologically and economically important but have no legal status.

•  Planning, Managing and Monitoring: Wetlands that come under the Protected area network have management plans but others do not. It is important for various stakeholders along with the local community and corporate sector to come together for an effective management plan. Active monitoring of these wetland systems over a period of time is essential.

•  Comprehensive Inventory: There has been no comprehensive inventory of all the Indian wetlands despite the efforts by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Asian Wetland Bureau and World Wide Fund for Nature. The inventory should involve the flora, fauna, and biodiversity along with values. It should take into account the various stakeholders in the community too.

•  Legislation: Although several laws protect wetlands there is no special legislation pertaining specially to these ecosystems. Environment Impact Assessment needed for major development projects highlighting threats to wetlands need to be formulated.

•  Coordinated Approach: Since wetlands are common property with multi-purpose utility, their protection and management also need to be a common responsibility. An appropriate forum for resolving the conflict on wetland issues has to be set up. It is important for the ministries to allocate sufficient funds towards the conservation of these ecosystems.

•  Research: There is a necessity for research in the formulation of national strategy to understand the dynamics of these ecosystems. This could be useful for the planners to formulate strategies for the mitigation of pollution. The scientific knowledge will help the planners in understanding the economic values and benefits, which in turn will help in setting priorities and focusing on the planning process.

•  Building Awareness: For achieving any sustainable success in the protection of these wetlands, awareness among the general public, educational and corporate institutions must be created. The policy makers, at various levels along with site managers need to be educated. As the country's wetlands are shared, the bi-lateral cooperation in the resource management needs to be enhanced.

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    Karnataka State is located between 11°31 and 18°45 north latitudes and 74°12’ and 78°40’ east longitudes. It extends from north to south for about 750 km and from east to west for about 400 km. It is bound on the west by Arabian Sea, northeast by Goa, north by Maharashtra, east by Andhra Pradesh, south and south-east by Tamil Nadu and south-west by Kerala. The Karnataka state covers an area of 1,92,204 sq.km, which covers 5.35% of the total geographical area of the country. There are twenty districts in the state, of which, Bijapur district covers the largest area and Coorg district the smallest area (Karnataka State Gazetteer (Part 1) 1991).

    Karnataka is divided into four regions namely coastal plain, Malnad, southern maidan and northern maidan. It has a coastline of 320 km. The Malnad overlaps into the ghats. It is rugged with a number of hills that receive large amount of rainfall and is densely forested. The deep gorges, waterfalls, rivers and watersheds interlaced with dense evergreen and semi evergreen forests constitute the core of the Malnad. The southern maidan is marked by undulating landscape, relatively flat surface with broad-based valleys. The southern upland consists of series of rolling granite hills and high degree of slopes. Karnataka is blessed with abundant water resources in the form of rivers and streams. The Western Ghats stretching north-south give rise to west flowing and east flowing river systems.

    The rivers of the coastal belt are west flowing, important among them being Nethravathi, Sharavathi, Aghnashini, Gangavali and the Kali. They have their source in the Western ghats and flow into the Arabian sea. The northern maidan is drained by the Krishna and its tributaries - Ghataprabha, Malaprabha, Bhima and Tungabhadra. The southern maidan is drained by the Cauvery and its tributaries like Harangi, Hemavathi, Yagachi, north Pennar, Pennar and south Pennar. All these rivers flow eastwards and drain into the Bay of Bengal.

  •  Soils: Karnataka has a variety of soil types, which depend on the geology, climate, vegetation and physiography, which has influenced various soil formation over the years. The soils have distinct morphological and physicochemical properties that have a bearing on plant growth and have influenced the cropping pattern. The soil groups of the state are: a) Shallow black soils, b) Medium black soils, c) Deep black soils, d) Red loamy soils, g) Lateritic soils, h) Lateritic gravelly soils and i) Coastal alluvial soils.

•  Rainfall: Karnataka receives rainfall from the two monsoons. The southwest monsoon is the major source of rainfall to the state. The average rainfall in the state is 890mm. The lowest rainfall was recorded in the district of Dharwad with 6.9 mm and the highest in the district of Uttara Kannada with 2764 mm.

•  Humidity: The average relative humidity is highest in the state during July-August and lowest in March-April. The humidity is also dependent on the temperature. The coastal areas, Ghats and Malnad areas are more humid than the maidan areas. The southern part of the maidan area is more humid than the northern part. The lowest relative humidity of 30% in the months of April - May is found in areas extending from northern Chitradurga and Bellary districts to Bijapur, Raichur and Gulbarga districts. Even in southern maidan low humidity of 10-20% can be recorded in March-April. High relative humidity of 90% occurs over the coastal area, Ghats and maidan areas and 60-80% over the rest of the state. From September onwards, humidity generally decreases up to November and more rapidly after that.

•  Temperature: The temperature is lowest in the month of January and increases thereafter. In the southern maidan region, the highest temperature occurs in April, while in the northern maidan and coastal regions the hottest month is May. In January, the mean daily maximum temperature is 31 to 32 ° C in the coastal areas. In the rest of the state, the mean daily maximum temperature varies from 27 to 29 ° C. In the Ghat regions, it is 24 - 27 ° C. In April the mean daily maximum temperature is about 32 ° C in coastal region and increases north-eastwards in northern maidan area to 40 ° C in Gulbarga- Raichur region and decreases to about 37 ° C in Bidar area. In the remaining maidan area, it varies from 33 - 36 ° C. Over the ghats and Malnad area, it is about 28 to 32 ° C.

•  Agriculture: Karnataka has a large area under cultivation. Out of the total area of 190.50 lakh hectares, 121.27 lakh hectares is cultivable. Agriculture in Karnataka to a large extent depends on rainfall, only a small percentage is irrigated. The major crops include paddy, jowar, ragi, maize, bajra, wheat and pulses. The state stands fifth in oilseed production. It has the largest area under coffee (39.2%) cultivation and other crops include cardamom, arecanut, sunflower, coconut, cashewnut, cotton, groundnut, chillies, castor seed, sugarcane and tobacco. Around 4.57 lakh hectares are under fishery production.

•  Irrigation and Power: Karnataka has the basins of Krishna (58.9%), Cauvery (18.8%), Godavari (2.31%), North Pennar (3.62%), South Pennar (1.96%), Palar (1.55%) and west flowing rivers (12.8%) with a drainage area of 1,91, 770 sq. km. The irrigation potential of the state from all the sources has been estimated as 60 lakh hectares consisting of 35 lakh hectares under major and medium irrigation, 15 lakh hectares under minor irrigation (surface) project and 10 lakh hectares under ground water. The important power projects are the Kalinadi stage I & II, Varahi, Gerusoppa (Sharavathi) and Shivasamudram hydroelectric projects.

8.2 DISTRIBUTION OF WETLANDS IN KARNATAKA:

    Of the total geographical area wetlands cover 2.72 Mha, out of which the inland wetlands cover 2.54 Mha and coastal wetlands 0.18 Mha. The 682 wetlands in the State come under inland-natural (7), inland man-made (615), coastal-natural (56) and coastal man-made (4) (Rege et.al., 1996).

Table 6:: Area under Inland and Coastal Wetlands of Karnataka

    According to the spatial extent of various wetlands in Karnataka, 561 tanks account for 79087.50 ha followed by reservoirs (53) covering an area of 174290.00 ha. There are 5 naturally formed lakes (437.50 ha) and 9 mudflats (1506.25 ha). The area under mangroves comprises of 550.00 ha and was observed at 7 individual patches. Subcategorywise spatial spread is listed in Table 7

8.3 DISTRICT WISE AREA UNDER WETLANDS::

    Table 8 gives the distribution of wetlands in the 19 districts of Karnataka state. The oxbow lake in Bidar has an areal extent of 56.25 ha. Similarly the swamp in Gulbarga covers an area of 87.50 ha. Major natural lakes are distributed as follows - two in Mandya (143.75 ha), and one each in Mysore (106.25 ha), Raichur (93.75 ha) and South Canara (93.75 ha). There are 53 reservoirs in the state distributed in all the districts except Kolar, Mandya, Mangalore and south Canara, covering a total area of 174290.00 ha. There are many tanks in Kolar district, which are shallow with high turbidity. Shimoga has the largest area (42363.00 ha) covered by reservoirs (11) followed by Bellary (30687.50 ha) and Bijapur (10475.00). There are 561 tanks covering an area of 79087.50 ha. Tumkur ranks the first in number (121) and also in area (15268.75 ha) followed by Kolar where 58 tanks have a spatial extent of 10294.00 ha. The coastal wetlands are seen in Uttara and Dakshina Kannada districts. They have 11 estuaries covering an area of 1306.25 ha. There are 4 in Uttara Kannada (668.75 ha) followed by 5 in Dakshina Kannada (637.50 ha). There are 5 distinct patches of mangroves present in Dakshina Kannada (381.25 ha) and two in Uttara Kannada (168.75 ha). Out of 6 salt marsh/marsh vegetation, 5 are in Uttara Kannada (2593.75 ha) and one in Dakshina Kannada (168.75 ha). All the four salt pans are in Uttara Kannada covering an area of 1181.25 ha.

8.4 4 SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN WATER-SPREAD AREA OF WETLANDS::

    The water-spread area of wetlands in Karnataka in the pre-monsoon period is 204053.74 ha whereas in the post monsoon period it is 246643.00 ha. Out of the total 682 wetlands in the state, 71 have shown water-spread area of less than 56.25 ha. The seasonal variations in the wetland area are prevalent where the water levels fluctuate depending on their use and meteorological conditions. Hence the inland wetlands (pond, lakes, reservoirs and tanks) show seasonal variations in the water-spread. The coastal wetlands under the influence of sea have not registered any changes in the water-spread. The water-spread of lakes/ponds in post-monsoon is 437.50 ha while in the pre-monsoon it decreases to 368.75 ha. Reservoirs show considerable variation during the pre (138684.25 ha) and post (162768.00ha) monsoon seasons. Tanks vary from 46975.25 ha to 60912.25 ha in the post- monsoon (Table 9).

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9. THE INTERCONNECTIVITY OF WETLANDS :

    Satellite remote sensing data and Geographic Information Systems have the potential to provide comprehensive information on various facets of wetland monitoring and management. Remotely sensed data from spaceborne sensors provide a spatially extensive and non-invasive means to produce maps of surface cover types and their biophysical properties. A Geographical Information System provides the ability to organise, visualise and merge the spatial datasets from different sources. The two main divisions evident in the application of remotely sensed data are as a tool for delineating wetlands and for mapping their internal composition or for estimating biogeochemical and biophysical properties. The remote sensing data help in the evaluation of land use/cover changes and their impact on the same area using multi-data imageries.

    Bangalore by virtue of its location, climate and rainfall supports a number of man-made tanks. The drainage network for Bangalore district was mapped using Geographic Information Systems along with remote sensing data and conventional field survey (Deepa and Ramachandra, 1999). The drainage map encompassed all the three taluks of Bangalore urban and 8 taluks of the Bangalore rural district. Figure 1 represents the drainage connectivity of Bangalore North district where the Nagavara kere, Yelahanka kere and Jakkur kere (the major wetlands of the taluk) are joined. Bellandur tank of the Bangalore south taluk(Figure.2) is interconnected to the surrounding wetlands which drain into Varthur and finally into the Dakshina Pinakini river. The Vrishbavathi river along with the catchment area flow from north to south - west of the taluk.

    Figure 3 represents the drainage map of Anekal district of Bangalore Urban district. In the north, Sakavar kere, Jigani kere, Hennagara kere, Mullanattur kere and Bidaraguppe kere are interrelated. In the south, Anekala kere is interlinked to Chikkanagudde kere, Chenneagrahars kere, Tatanhalli kere and Attibele kere, which drain into Chinna river. Most of the wetlands of this region drain into the Xebba halla and Jkkana halla and finally into the Antharagange hole in Kanakapura taluk (Figure 4). The Kanava reservoir in Chennapatna serves as receiving waterbody for the interconnected wetlands such as Holegeredoddi kere, Chennapatna kere and Kudulur kere. The Kanava finally drains into the Shimsha river.

    The Devanahalli taluk (Figure 5) is represented by major wetlands like Rampur kere and Yellamallappachetty kere, which drain into the Dakshina Pinakini river. The Bagulur kere, Gamannahalli kere, Doddajallaamanikere, Bandagodigana halikere and Bodigermane kere are interconnected and drain into Hoskote taluk.

    Doddaballapur taluk has two major networks (Figure 6). The first drains into the Hesarghatta tank and consists of the Mallanayakan halli kere, Dodda hajji kere and Madhure kere. The second network connects Hambikere, Doddaballapur kere, Palanakere and Konagotta kere draining into Hesarghatta tank reaching Arkavathi river.

    The Hoskote taluk (Figure 7) is represented by interconnected wetlands of Hoskote kere, Nallurhalli kere, Mugbal kere, Yelachchahalli kere and Tavare kere. These wetlands finally drain into the Dakshina Pinakini river in southern region.

    Figure 8 represents the Kanakpura drainage network map. The Arkavathi drains into the Cauvery basin. Most of the wetlands in this taluk drain into the Anthargange hole connecting Rayanala hole and the Kuthe hole joining the Arkavathi.

The major water bodies of Magadi taluk (Figure 9) are Ire kere, Bettahalli kere, Mayasandra kere, Biskur kere and Kalepalya kere, which drain into Kunigal kere of Tumkur taluk. The wetlands in the eastern region drain into Chikka tore and finally into the Arkavathi river. The wetlands in the south drain into Kanva hole of Ramanagaram taluk.

    The Nelamangala drainage map is shown in Figure 10. The wetlands of this taluk drain into the Mavathur kere (Tumkur district). Chamarajasagar reservoir serves as receiving water body in this area including river Arkavathi.

    Nelligode tank and Byramangala reservoir are the two important wetlands of Ramanagaram taluk draining into the Vrishbavathi river (Figure 11).

9.1 ANALYSIS OF SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL CHANGES IN WETLAND CATCHMENT AREA::

    Watersheds are natural hydrologic entities covering a specific area of land from which the rainfall flows to a drain, channel, lake or river. They are appropriate for the assessment of available resources, planning and implementation of development programs.

    In Karnataka, dryland farming is practiced in about 78% of the net cultivated area and crop production is dependent on the monsoon. The major problems in these areas appear to be deforestation, undependable and uneven distribution of rainfall, land degradation due to erosion, decreased soil fertility, major portion of the watersheds under wastelands, lack of management and infrastructure, urbanisation and increased occurrence of drought. Thus farming is dependent not only on soil, monsoon rainfall but also on the socio-economic status of farmers.

    The spatial and temporal changes in the status of the wetlands with their catchment area from 1988 to 1993 have been analysed using remote sensing data (ISRO, 1998). Results are listed in Table 10. The Figures 12 to 31 lists the Land use changes in selected watersheds of Karnataka.Figures 32 and 33 represent the water bodies in the catchment, drainage network and land use/ land cover changes of Nelligode and Heserghata watershed areas of Bangalore. The analyses of these watershed areas revealed that the area of the Nelligode tank has reduced by 38% (Deepa and Ramachandra, 1999). Lack of proper vegetative cover has led to soil erosion, which has contributed to reduced storage capacity.

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10. IMPACT OF URBANISATION ON WETLANDS :

    In recent years the rapid urbanisation has contributed to the degradation of the wetlands beyond repair. The city of Bangalore is the sixth largest metropolis in the country and supports a population of five million as compared to 0.4 million in 1941 (1991 census). The number of tanks has reduced from 262 in 1960 to around 81 at present. The spatial and temporal changes in the number of waterbodies were done with the help of GIS and remote sensing data (Deepa et al, 1997). The spatial mapping of the water bodies in Bangalore district (Figure 34) revealed that the number of waterbodies has decreased from 379 (138 in North and 241 in south) in 1973 to 246 (96-north and 150-south) in 1996. An overall decrease of 35.09% was attributed to urbanisation and industrialisation. The tanks were reclaimed for various purposes such as residential layouts, commercial establishments, sport complexes, etc. For e.g. Darmombudi tank has been converted into the current city bus stand, Millers tank into a residential layout, Sampangi tank into the Kanteerva stadium, Chelgatta into a golf course, Shuleh tank into a football stadium and Koramangala tank into a sports complex. This has changed the climate of the city and affected its ground water level.

Table 11 : Turbidity status of various Wetlands

Wetland category	Low	Moderate	High
Lake/pond (5)	2	1	2
Ox-bow lake (1)	1	-	-
Reservoir (53)	36	9	8
Tank (561)	161	212	188
Waterlogged (1)	-	1	-

Table 12 : Aquatic vegetation status of various Wetlands

Wetland category	PV	VF	CV	NV
Lake/pond	-	5	-	5
Reservoirs	5	9	-	39
Tanks	83	54	7	417
Ox-bow lake	-	-	1	-
Swamp/marsh	1	-	-	-
Waterlogged (man-made)	1	-	-	-
Estuary	-	-	-	11
Creek	-	-	-	5
Kayal	-	-	-	4
Tidal/mudflat	-	-	-	9
Sand/beach/spit/bar	-	-	-	9
Mangrove	-	-	7	-
Salt marsh/marsh veg	11	-	-	-

Table 13 : Talukwise distribution of tanks	Table 14 : Distribution of 81 live lakes based on its area
S no Name of the Taluk No. of tanks 1 Bangalore North 61 2 Bangalore South 98 3 Hoskote 23 4 Anekal 44 5 Magadi 11 6 Nelamangala 13 7 Devanahalli 12	Area No. of lakes Area < 10 ha 49 Area between 11 & 20 ha 16 Area between 21 & 50 ha 14 Area > 50 ha 2 Total 81

The number of tanks in Bangalore has fallen from 262 in 1960 to some 81 at present (Deepa et al,1997). These tanks were grouped based on the spatial extent and are listed in Table 14, while Table 15 lists some of the live tanks in Bangalore with their water spread area (Deepa et al, 1997).

Table 15 : Spatial extent of some 17 existing lakes

S no	LAKE	AREA (ha)
1	Vasanthapura	2.0
2	Dorekere	11.29
3	Moggekere	6.06
4	Madivala	114.20
5	Agaram	56.67
6	Puttenahalli	32.89
7	Doddabegur	32.86
8	Ulsoor	49.80
9	Bellandur	361.30
10	Narasipura-1	3.62
11	Narasipura-2	6.12
12	Doddabommasandra	40.90
13	Nagavara	22.46
14	Lalbagh	96.00
15	Kempambudhi	14.84
16	Hebbal	76.87
17	Hulimavu	49.70
	TOTAL	977.58